Michigan State University Extension
Ag Experiment Station Special Reports - 03229568
07/28/98
January 1995 Special Report 68
Status and Potential of Michigan Natural Resources
Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, Michigan State University
SPECIAL REPORT
Michigan Natural Resources Policy
Cynthia Fridgen Associate Professor Department of Resource Development, MSU
Jill Keisling Graduate Student Department of Resource Development, MSU
Introduction
Michigan is the custodian of a valuable and unique natural resource base. Michigan's position in the Great Lakes immediately draws attention to its abundant water resources. Michigan's 3,288-mile Great Lakes shoreline is the longest freshwater shoreline in the continental United States and rivals the entire U.S. Atlantic seaboard (Spotts, 1991). The Great Lakes are the world's largest system of freshwater lakes, containing 95 percent of the United States' surface freshwater and 20 percent of the world's surface freshwater.
Michigan has a wealth of other water resources. The state has 10,188 lakes and ponds of 5 or more acres and 35,000 lakes greater than 1/10 of an acre. More than 36,000 miles of rivers wind through Michigan. There are more than 100 waterfalls in the Upper Peninsula alone. The Upper Falls of the Tahquamenon River are the second largest falls east of the Mississippi (Spotts, 1991).
An 18-million-acre forest land base illustrates the abundance of Michigan's forest resources. Approximately half the state is forested, providing Michigan with a resource base for both commodity and noncommodity uses. Michigan has the largest state-owned forest system in the continental United States. The largest virgin hardwood forest in eastern North America west of the Adirondacks is located in the Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park of the Upper Peninsula (Spotts, 1991).
Michigan also has abundant land resources. A wide range of soil types characterize Michigan. This diversity, combined with climatic conditions, gives the state a comparative advantage for many crops, particularly fruits and vegetables. In addition, Michigan has a significant acreage of federal and state lands. The U.S. Secretary of the Interior has designated 12 national natural landmarks in Michigan (Spotts, 1991).
Michigan's mineral resources have supplied a very strong minerals industry, ranked seventh in the nation in the total value of minerals produced. This strength is due to the diversity of mineral resources that Michigan holds. The state has a wide range of metallic and non-metallic minerals, as well as oil and gas. In 1990, Michigan was the nation's leading producer of calcium chloride, iron oxide pigments, magnesium compounds and peat.
The diverse nature of its natural resource base means Michigan is capable of supporting a remarkable diversity of plant and animal species. The variety of water types, such as both warm and cold water streams, combined with the range of latitudes from the northern to the southern regions of the state, has resulted in a range of habitats that support a diversity of wildlife. Michigan has approximately 170 species of fish, with 30 major sport fisheries. There are approximately 30 to 40 game species in Michigan. Michigan's elk herd, consisting of almost 1,000 animals, is the largest free-roaming herd east of the Mississippi (Spotts, 1991).
Michigan's unique natural resources have been important in attracting development and business interests. For example, Michigan is ranked fifth in the nation in the number of state parks and has more modern campsites than any other state. Its park system is one of the most heavily visited (Spotts, 1991). Michigan Gov. John Engler has described the exploitation and mishandling of the state's natural resources as Michigan has attempted to meet societal needs and wants: "Unfortunately, it has been difficult to reach a constructive balance between the environment, the economy and recreational needs _ with our air, water and land suffering from corporate, municipal and personal use and abuse" (Engler, 1990).
Both the maintenance and the enhancement of Michigan's resources require innovative and effective natural resources policy, planning and investments. The focus reports of the SAPMINR project further describe the characteristics, emerging issues and research needs of Michigan's natural resources. The purpose of this overview report is to discuss efforts to maintain the quality of the natural resource base through effectual policies, how such efforts have failed in the past and how to improve the effectiveness of natural resources policy. Finally, the Michigan Relative Risk Analysis Project is used to identify areas where further research and policy attention need to be directed to address important environmental risks that Michigan faces.
Natural Resources Policy
The environment is composed of many interrelated natural resources. Concerns about Michigan's natural resources are included in environmental concerns. Thus, "environmental policy" and "natural resources policy" will both be addressed throughout this discussion as policies that affect both the quality and the utilization of natural resources.
Natural resources policy development and implementation are responses to concerns about the present and future condition of the natural resource base, the use of those resources and, consequently, the quality of life in Michigan.
Concern about Ecosystem Health
Natural resource policy results from concerns about the health of the ecosystem because of the importance of ecological well-being to both human and wildlife health. Natural resource policy is designed to protect habitat and ecosystems and to restore degraded environments. In short, human health and welfare ultimately rely upon the life support systems and natural resources provided by healthy ecosystems. Moreover, human beings are part of an interconnected and interdependent global ecosystem, and past experience has shown that change in one part of the system often affects other parts in unexpected ways (EPA, 1990:9).
Survival depends on the maintenance of the ecosystem of which humans are a part. Policy is developed to address concerns about ecosystem health.
Concern about Economic Development Opportunities
Natural resource policy is also designed to maintain resources and support economic development. Five economically vital industries depend on Michigan's natural resources: agriculture, forest products, mining, recreation and tourism. These industries are all significant contributors to the Michigan economy.
The impact of these industries requires policies to protect and enhance the resources on which they depend. Poor environmental practices in the past and present hinder future economic development opportunities. Through the use of appropriate management and investments, Michigan can strive to enhance its natural resource base to attract future industries.
Natural resource policy capable of accomplishing these objectives will be most effective if there is a reconceptualization of economics and growth and a redefinition of economic goals. Though gross national product (GNP) measurements include the depreciation of machine capital, these measurements exclude the depreciation of environmental capital. In fact, monies spent cleaning up environmental pollution add to the GNP. Robert Repetto and colleagues at the World Resources Institute (WRI) have done research to understand the effect of GNP omissions on politics and economics. He gave the following testimony before a U.S. Congressional committee in 1989:
If depletion of natural resources can no longer masquerade as income growth, governments tempted to engage in environmental deficit financing will be less able to hide behind a reassuring screen of economic indicators. Policies that promote destructive and wasteful uses of natural resources will no longer be justified so easily as necessary for economic growth (Kane, 1992:64).
A competition is often depicted between economics and the environment. However, wise management balances economics and environmental sustainability, realizing that economic well-being depends on environmental well-being. Resource-enhancing practices improve opportunities for industry. During his gubernatorial campaign, Gov. John Engler stated his commitment to balanced environmental policy in Michigan.
There is no longer any reason, in my judgment, why we cannot have good jobs and a clean environment. Balanced and planned growth is the key to a prosperous future for Michigan, and the next governor can lead the way in developing policies which encourage both economic development and environmental preservation (Engler, 1990).
Economic consequences are frequently considered and addressed when natural resources decisions are made. However, environmental factors do not wield the same influence on economic decision making. Environmental decisions must begin to be integrated with economic decisions in the policy arena. "Economics" and "ecology" both stem from the ancient Greek work "oikos," meaning "house." "Their separation reflects a recent development that is not consistent with their true natures" (Kane 1992:14-15). Continuing this dichotomy will contribute to distorted policy development.
Concern about Intergenerational Responsibilities
Finally, natural resource policy results from concern about responsibilities to future generations. This concern is intimately related to the previous two concerns. In this case, concern is raised about the economic and ecosystem health of future generations.
Very often, long-term costs are overlooked in favor of short-term benefits. For example, GNP measurements include the short-term benefits of resource extraction and use but exclude the long-term costs of resource depletion. The economic method of discounting future resource values is also inappropriate.
. . . a methodology that presumes the future value of an ecological resource necessarily must be less than its present value will not be a useful analytical tool for sustaining economic development over the long term. The standard practice of discounting future resource values is inappropriate, and it results in policies that lead to the depletion of irreplaceable natural resources (EPA, 1990:8).
Society is irresponsible to future generations if it trades off the long-term value of natural resources in favor of short-term use. Rather, sustainable systems should be sought.
Actions that follow linear patterns of extraction of raw materials, production, transportation, consumption and disposal only take from the earth; they do little or nothing to protect or expand options in the future....Sustainable development is a process of looking to the future, of understanding the cycles of nature and society, of expanding inclusion of people and perspectives, of conserving balance, and of accepting interconnectedness. It says that those are the elements of a future that will maximize rather than limit human potential (Kane, 1992:122, emphasis added).
There are signs of progress. The Endangered Species Act and the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act are important examples of policies addressing long-term concerns. Such policy is often difficult to implement because, even if agreement is achieved on long-term goals (for example, what future resource conditions should be), it is hard to reach consensus on methods to accomplish those objectives. Politicians are elected in the short term. As a result, long-term concerns are often supplanted by more immediate ones. Regardless of this difficulty, natural resource policy must continue to attempt to meet concerns about intergenerational responsibilities.
Categories of Natural Resource Policy
Natural resource policies fall into four categories: enhancement, protection, restoration/mitigation and utilization. These four types of policies can be implemented at the international, federal, state, regional or local levels.
ENHANCEMENT POLICIES are those policies that increase the value, desirability or attractiveness of the natural resource base. Such policies allow the realization of Michigan's comparative advantage in resource-based economic activity. An example is the rotation of park areas to allow plants to flourish.
PROTECTION POLICIES are those policies that shield natural resources from destruction and maintain the current quality of the natural resource base. Coastal zone regulations to control erosion are protection policies. Michigan has some of the strongest coastal resource protection statutes in the nation.
RESTORATION/MITIGATION POLICIES are those policies that reinstate the natural resource base to a former condition of quality. Restoring a lake to a quality fishing lake is an example of restoration.
UTILIZATION POLICIES are those policies that adapt natural resources for wise and sustainable use by the public. An example of a utilization policy is the installation of a boardwalk through a wetland area so that people can observe wildlife.
As policies are formulated, adopted and implemented, it has become obvious to some analysts that there are both gaps and overlap in natural resource policies.
Obstacles to Effective Natural Resource Policy
The U.S. response to environmental and natural resource problems has been uncoordinated, and so less effective than desired. The laws, programs and tools used to address concerns have been fragmented.
Fragmented Laws
New legislation separately addressed new natural resource and environmental problems as they arose. Consequently, these laws were neither consistent with nor coordinated with one another. In addition, laws passed for purposes other than natural resource protection often affect environmental quality (EPA, 1990).
Fragmented Programs
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) evolved an administrative structure consisting of many programs that do not coordinate with one another even when they are attempting to address different aspects of the same problem. Environmental problems tend to be categorized, mirroring the fragmented nature of programs (EPA, 1990).
Furthermore, the programs and policies of agencies other than the EPA - e.g., departments of commerce and agriculture - also affect the environment:
Much of the best potential for environmental improvements rests in the hands of organizations that traditionally have not considered environmental goals as one of their top concerns, and that have not educated their staffs on the environmental roles they could play. Problems continue to be treated in isolation, with little cooperation among the various institutions and individuals whose actions affect more than their own areas of expertise (Kane, 1992:6).
In Michigan, multiple departments have responsibility for the environment but operate independently, each agency having its own database and often very different missions. The Michigan departments of Natural Resources (MDNR), Agriculture (MDA) and Public Health (MDPH) all have statutory responsibility for environmental protection. The Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) and the Michigan Public Service Commission (MPSC) are important examples of other departments whose activities can significantly affect the environment (Rustem et al., 1992).
The Michigan Department of State Police (MDSP) provides another interesting example. MDSP has a communications project underway that will significantly affect the natural resources of this state. Two hundred towers will be erected as the department installs a new, faster communications system. The high frequency signals emitted by these towers will have unintended consequences on Michigan natural resources. To avoid such unintended consequences, the activities of all the departments listed above must become cooperative and coordinated instead of fragmented.
Fragmented Tools
The tools used to protect the environment have primarily been "end-of-pipe" controls and remediation technologies that are applied as problems are identified. This reactive, fragmentary approach is not fully effective in protecting natural resources (EPA, 1990).
In 1989, the Science Advisory Board (SAB) formed the Relative Risk Reduction Strategies Committee (RRRSC) in response to a request by then EPA administrator William K. Reilly. The RRRSC strategic options subcommittee identified several important tools for environmental risk reductions that promise to be more effective than the traditional approach. They include: scientific and technical measures (research and development, new pollution prevention and control technologies); information provision to consumers and producers; market incentives (pollution charges, marketable permits, deposit-refund systems, removal of market barriers, revision of legal standards of liability); conventional regulations (performance and design standards, use restrictions); and enforcement (better enforcement of existing statutes and regulations) (EPA, 1990).
Reasons Fragmentation Must Be Overcome
This fragmentation of laws, programs and tools is a formidable obstacle to the effective solution of environmental problems. "The division of our thinking, and our institutions, into discrete categories called energy, industry, population growth, transportation, women's issues, housing, health care and so on is one of the major impediments to a sustainable future" (Kane, 1992:11). It is important that society recognize the connections between our economic, environmental, social and cultural systems.
For several reasons this fragmentation must be overcome if effective natural resources policy is to be achieved. The simplest environmental problems have already been dealt with _ only complex ones remain. Furthermore, the cost of controlling remaining problems one by one is rising. Because of the diversity, complexity and scope of current natural resource problems, policy must change (EPA, 1990).
Policy must become proactive rather than reactive. Policy should focus on means for natural resource improvement and protection rather than on corrective measures. Existing enhancement and protection policies should be evaluated and built on in a thoughtful, efficient manner.
Policy must become integrated and this integration should be governmentwide.
The environment is an interrelated whole, and society's environmental protection efforts should be integrated as well. Integration in this case means that government agencies should assess the range of environmental problems of concern and then target protective efforts at problems that seem to be the most serious (EPA, 1990:1).
EPA's Relative Risk Reduction Strategies Committee recommends integrating concerns about natural resources into broader public policy much as economic concerns already are integrated. Government systems are like ecosystems - changes in one part affect other parts (Kane, 1992). Thus, environmental concerns should be integrated into the policy discussions of other agencies.
Decision making and policy making should be long-term and cyclical. Recurring problems are often the result of short-term, linear thinking. This thinking results in "patchwork attempts" and "piecemeal solutions" (Kane, 1992:4). As a result, agencies, and even individual policies, must compete for limited resources.
No U.S. government plan exists to treat social, economic, and environmental problems in the cyclical, interconnected fashion in which they work. Rather, the agencies directed toward these goals exist separately. Those that make decisions over the processes that affect the environment act independently from those setting policy for industry, transportation, trade, energy, urban planning, and social welfare. Policies are not cycled among the agencies but rather divided among them (Kane, 1992:4).
Thus, not only are natural resource issues integrated with one another, but these issues are also integrated with other policy issues. Unless our thinking and approach to societal problems is made more integrative, the same problems will have to be addressed over and over again. Long-term remedies will not be employed.
Risk Assessment as a Tool for More Effective Policy
The concept of environmental risk can be a helpful tool for developing integrated policy. Every natural resource problem poses some degree of risk to ecology, the economic system and/or the quality of human life and health (EPA, 1990). These three risk areas are the same as the three concerns that natural resource policy seeks to address. In response to concerns about these risks, policy is developed. Risk assessment provides a base for designing more effective policy. Scientific assessment of risks to our natural resources establishes a problem set that can be addressed comprehensibly.
It is because many risks cannot be regulated on an individual, voluntary basis that the government has responsibility for making decisions about them. Without the use of risk assessment, governmental attention directed at risks has the potential of becoming subject to an unpredictable political process. "That process frequently leads to stalemate and reliance on the status quo; at other times it careens in response to popular perceptions and whims of the moment" (Leonard and Zeckhauser, 1986:34). Reliance on "pluralistic democratic theory" for debating risks has resulted in inefficient decisions. "...(I)t has become increasingly clear that it is hard or impossible to design a political system with the peculiar virtue that naked competition among competing interests within that system will yield results that it would be rational to want" (Gibbard, 1986:110). A risk-based approach drives policy development more as a response to the resource and less as a response to political pressure.
Risk assessment provides a means of measuring and comparing natural resource and environmental problems. It allows policy to be developed more consistently and systematically (EPA, 1990).
Risk assessment is the process by which the form, dimension, and characteristics of that risk are estimated, and risk management is the process by which the risk is reduced. The concept of environmental risk, together with its related terminology and analytical methodologies, helps people discuss disparate environmental problems with a common language (EPA, 1990:2, emphasis added).
Many scholars and practitioners believe that risk assessment is a valuable tool for strategic planning and priority setting. The National Research Council cites the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Relative Risk Reduction Project (EPA, 1990) as an example of a "higher level risk assessment" capable of assisting both the agency and society in determining environmental priorities. "The purpose of these assessments is to set priorities and define budgets, and they can be used within agencies and as a means of setting priorities between agencies....They can benefit from use of an explicit risk assessment framework to organize information and present results in a form useful for decision making" (National Research Council, 1993:247).
William D. Ruckelshaus, former administrator of the EPA, contends that environmental protection must be redefined as the management of risk. "When we adopt this definition, we specifically will abandon the impossible goal of perfect security and accept the responsibility for making difficult and painful choices among competing goods" (Ruckelshaus, 1990:113). He acknowledges the apprehension of many scientists and agency officials regarding the utilization of risk assessment to frame environmental policy. He argues, however, that it is an essential and irreplaceable tool for use in priority setting. Therefore, though we recognize its current shortcomings, we must continue to use and improve upon risk assessment.
My point is that in confronting any risk there is no way to escape the question, "Is controlling it worth it?" We must ask this question not only in terms of the relationship of the risk reduced and the cost to the economy, but also as it applies to the resources of the agency involved. Policy attention is the most precious commodity in government, and a regulation that marginally protects only 20 people may take as much attention as a regulation that surely protects a million (Ruckelshaus, 1990:112).
In a world of limited resources, risk assessment provides a means of more efficient allocation by targeting these resources to reducing the greatest risks to human and environmental health. "Clearly, money or regulatory attention spent on one risk is not available for another, so it is important not to waste resources on trivial risks. It is apparent that conservatism is counterproductive and that risks are increased if resources are shifted from significant risks to small, exaggerated risks" (Whipple, 1989:1111). Risk assessment provides a means of allocating scarce resources in a manner that provides the greatest social benefits.
The capacity to rank risks gains value as the number and seriousness of problems competing for attention and limited resources continue to rise. Risk assessment helps in determining the most effective risk reduction strategies.
There are heavy costs involved if society fails to set environmental priorities based on risk. If finite resources are expended on lower priority problems at the expense of higher priority risks, the society will face needlessly high risks. If priorities are established based on the greatest opportunities to reduce risk, total risk will be reduced in a more efficient way, lessening threats to both public health and local and global ecosystems (EPA, 1990:2).
Limited resources make it necessary to prioritize risks to natural resources to obtain more effective policy capable of addressing our concerns about ecosystem health, economic development and sustainability, and future generations.
Michigan's Relative Risk Analysis Project
In late 1991, Michigan became one of the first states to undertake its own risk assessment project. The uniqueness and diversity of Michigan's natural resources and the variety of industries using and depending on those resources required such an effort. Funded by the EPA through a grant awarded to the Michigan DNR in September 1991, the Relative Risk Analysis Project (RRAP) goal was "...to use input from citizens, scientists, and state agencies to identify and rank Michigan's environmental concerns" (Rustem et al., 1992:4).
The RRAP used three committees _ scientists, agency representatives and citizens _ to study and rank environmental issues. The incorporation of these three perspectives was intended to allow their further incorporation into any resulting policy decisions. Both the three-committee system and the individual committee members were selected to ". . . maximize breadth of knowledge, experience, and values" (Rustem et al., 1992:9). The resulting diversity was to strengthen the RRAP process and the results.
Each of the three committees met independently to identify issues of concern. A combined committee meeting produced a list of issues that each committee then independently ranked. "Part of the design of this risk-assessment process was to test whether differences in knowledge base or differences in perceptions were associated with differences in ranking" (Rustem et al., 1992:11).
Following the production of three separate lists of rankings, discussion as a combined committee produced a list of 24 issues ranked in four categories. (Population growth, density and distribution were determined to be overarching factors affecting all other issues of environmental concern.) In discussing each issue, the committee whose independent ranking differed the most from those of the other two committees opened the debate by explaining its rationale. All three committees had to be in complete agreement before the final placement of an issue in a category (Rustem et al., 1992).
The issues were ranked according to scientific knowledge of residual risks (those risks remaining, given current programs) without regard to political concerns, ease of remediation, public perception or economic costs. Throughout the process, committee members were reminded to relinquish "turf" concerns or special interests (Rustem et al., 1992). The RRAP committee recognized that all environmental problems are important but that limited financial resources necessitate ranking these issues. Their concern that none of the issues be misinterpreted as unimportant is illustrated in the labels selected for the categories: high-high, high, medium-high and medium (Rustem et al., 1992). None of the issues were identified as low-risk.
The results of the project are ". . . intended to provide information to legislators, the governor, environmental groups and others involved in formulating environmental policies" (Rustem et al., 1992:4). Readers may not completely agree with the RRAP process, but it should be studied thoughtfully.
. . . this report should be read carefully because its conclusions were reached only after careful consideration by many highly qualified people. They took a hodge-podge of difficult issues and organized them in a logical, systematic fashion. Their findings are certain to have a significant effect on the state's environmental policy for many years (Rustem et al., 1992:2).
The intention of the RRAP to influence Michigan's natural resource policies is the reason for the inclusion of its results in this report. (Listing taken from Rustem et al., 1992.)
An interesting comparison may be made between the RRAP results and existing MDNR and MDPH programs. Currently, major departmental efforts primarily deal with issues in the medium and medium-high categories. Few state programs deal with issues ranked in the high-high and high categories (Rustem et al., 1992). Thus, the remainder of this overview report will focus on issues ranked in the high-high and high categories to identify ways that the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station (MAES) can direct research to contribute to more appropriate natural resource policy. For this reason, though all 24 risk issues are included in the following list, rationales are included only for those issues in the high-high and high categories.
HIGH-HIGH RISK
ABSENCE OF LAND USE PLANNING THAT CONSIDERS RESOURCES AND THE INTEGRITY OF ECOSYSTEMS
This issue involves broad changes in the landscape that affect environmental quality. It has many aspects, including farmland, Great Lakes and other shorelines, habitat modification, inefficient use of public money, lack of an integrated state land use plan, loss of open space, multiple jurisdictions, soil erosion, timber management, urban sprawl/urban flight and wetlands.
DEGRADATION OF URBAN ENVIRONMENTS
The effects of population density are wide ranging and complicated by multiple stresses. This issue includes all urban environments and is closely related to land use. Degradation of the infrastructure associated with drinking and wastewater treatment, the effects of urban sprawl and pesticides are part of this issue. Certain exposures to heavy metals, such as lead in paint, are also included.
ENERGY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION: PRACTICES AND CONSEQUENCES
Energy consumption drives the infrastructure that sustains Michigan's standard of living. The inefficient use of energy and the deleterious by-products of production and consumption threaten the economic security and environmental quality of the state and the nation.
GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE
This issue includes the "greenhouse effect" and associated long-term changes in weather patterns that could have profound effects on Michigan. Certain activities in Michigan contribute to the buildup of greenhouse gases such as auto exhausts and stack emissions. Michigan sources contribute to the overall buildup of greenhouse gases, and state policies can affect the problem.
LACK OF ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
People are uninformed about environmental issues, and lack of information may make it more difficult to make lifestyle changes that may be necessary to correct many of the problems identified. This issue is broader than K-12 education - it extends into adulthood. A comprehensive environmental education effort does not now exist in Michigan, either at the grade school level or as an adult education program. It is common to read about threats to natural resources but less common to be exposed to solutions.
STRATOSPHERIC OZONE DEPLETION
Ozone acts as a filter for ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun. As ozone levels decrease, humans will be exposed to increased ultraviolet radiation and eye disease and skin cancer may increase. Plant growth also can be affected, resulting in lower crop and timber yields. Michigan sources contribute to the buildup of ozone-depleting gases, and state policies can affect the problem. An immediate ban on destructive chemicals would not eliminate the threat until the middle of the next century because of the long lifetime of some of these gases in the atmosphere.
HIGH RISK
ALTERATION OF SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY, INCLUDING THE GREAT LAKES
Michigan's water resources are among the most important resources to the state. This issue includes changes in water levels that result from natural and human activities, such as channelization, dredging, dams and withdrawals. This issue includes modification of streams, construction and maintenance of county drains, and groundwater reserves.
ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION OF AIR TOXICS
More than 200 contaminants are designated as air toxics. Many of these substances are known or suspected carcinogens; the rest pose other health risks or may have unknown biological effects. This issue considers the effects of human exposure to air toxics and their effects on ecosystems. At current concentrations measured in Michigan, inhalation of air toxics does not appear to pose a measurable health risk. However, PCBs, mercury, dioxin and a handful of other persistent toxics are of primary concern because they can be transported hundreds (maybe thousands) of miles before being deposited and accumulating in the environment. Persistent toxics are responsible for fish advisories in the Great Lakes and inland lakes in Michigan. Atmospheric deposition is the principal source.
BIODIVERSITY AND HABITAT MODIFICATION
This issue includes the introduction of exotic species, biotechnology, wetland loss, forest monoculture, sedimentation in streams and species extinction. Loss of species is irreversible and global in scope; these losses could affect ecological balance. State land management policies and lack of a land use plan contribute to the problem.
INDOOR POLLUTANTS
Americans spend the majority of their time indoors and may be exposed to a variety of contaminants, including asbestos, lead, radon, VOCs (volatile organic compounds) and many others. This issue involves homes as well as office buildings, and not all workplaces are regulated by the Occupational Safety and Health Act. Some aspects of this problem are related to energy consumption and conservation practices. In some cases, conserving energy has meant an increase in indoor air pollutants due to reduced air circulation and exchange.
NON-POINT-SOURCE DISCHARGES TO SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER, INCLUDING THE GREAT LAKES
Widely distributed sources - including fertilizers, pesticides, soil erosion and sewer outfalls - expose surface water and groundwater to a variety of pollutants. Many of these pollutants are carried to water systems by the runoff from streets, parking lots, agricultural land and lawns.
TRACE METALS IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Exposure to heavy metals results in a wide variety of toxic effects on all organisms, including humans. Heavy metals present a particularly difficult problem because they are common and occur naturally. Mercury is most critical, especially in aquatic environments. Some natural processes can make metals more mobile and toxic in the environment. Lead and cadmium are also a considerable concern because of their effects on children.
MEDIUM-HIGH RISK
This category has not been annotated but is included here for your information.
Contaminated sites
Contaminated surface water sediments
Generation and disposal of hazardous waste
Generation and disposal of high-level radioactive waste
Generation and disposal of low-level radioactive waste
Generation and disposal of municipal and industrial solid waste
Photochemical smog
Point-source discharges to surface water and groundwater, including the Great Lakes
MEDIUM RISK
This category has not been annotated but is included here for your information.
Accidental releases and responses
Acid deposition
Criteria and related air pollutants
Electromagnetic field effects
CONSIDERATIONS IN APPLICATION OF THE RRAP RESULTS
Budget considerations, particularly recent budget cuts, require objective study and application of all of the results by experts in all issue areas. Scholars and practitioners who have limited their expertise to one issue area must be willing to study other issues that were previously beyond the scope of their work. The integrative nature of these issues also requires cooperative study among experts. For example, land use scholars and wildlife scholars must work together. University research and Extension faculty members could play an important role by scanning the environment for examples of interrelated natural resource problems.
Budget considerations further require projects dealing with these issues to be defined efficiently. One project that cuts across all issues is the need to develop baseline data. Michigan lacks the consistent statewide database necessary for effective planning and policy.
Michigan should also take advantage of this unique opportunity to address global problems through projects that contribute to solutions at the local level. Some of the issues ranked in the high-high and high categories are regional or global problems that Michigan cannot solve alone. But this state can take a leadership position in addressing these problems (Rustem et al., 1992).
Finally, it is important to consider the phenomenon of risk assessment. Identification of risks tends to return people to a state of ease _ the process of identification reduces dissonance. It is necessary, however, to begin to develop methods to prevent these risks from initially developing. It is also necessary to change planning, policies and programs to address issues proactively to anticipate the costs associated with risks and prevent their occurrence. We are suggesting a change in attitude toward the way we view our stewardship of natural resources.
APPLYING RRAP RESULTS TO THE SAPMINR PROJECT
The remainder of this overview report will identify existing programs and policies that address issues in the high-high and high categories, as well as gaps or shortcomings in efforts to address these risks. The purpose of this discussion is to identify further research necessary to strengthen policy related to important risks Michigan faces and to delineate an important role for the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station.
ABSENCE OF LAND USE PLANNING THAT CONSIDERS RESOURCES AND THE INTEGRITY OF ECOSYSTEMS
Regardless of area of expertise - water resources, fisheries and wildlife, etc. - nearly everyone consulted stated the importance of developing effective land use planning. Appropriate land use planning is paramount to the protection of all of Michigan's resources. Appropriate planning may be able to integrate our concerns about risks in various issue areas and address multiple risks.
The issues of "absence of land use planning that considers resources and the integrity of ecosystems, energy production and consumption: practices and consequences, and lack of environmental awareness" are broad issues that affect all others on the list. Addressing these problems could reduce the effects of other problems (Rustem et al., 1992:17).
The basic lesson of the RRAP is that issues cannot be addressed separately. The SAPMINR project runs the risk of falling into this traditional trap of fragmentation unless it takes an integrative approach to these issues.
One of the most important reasons the development of appropriate land use planning deserves immediate attention is that such planning will address many of the other risks that Michigan faces. Land use decisions affect the quality of the state's water, air, soil and wildlife. For example, land use practices on public and private lands have impacts on fish and wildlife resources. Land must be managed to incorporate these concerns. Research is necessary to develop land use planning that incorporates ecological concerns. It is necessary to develop a better understanding of the implications of ecological relationships to land use planning and to transfer this knowledge to land use planners.
Multiple state and local agencies and authorities influence land use decisions. Furthermore, much power and control lie at the local level.
Little attention is paid to coordinating the goals of these various entities to lay the foundation for integrated land-use planning....It should be a high priority for Michigan to develop a land-use plan that optimizes wood production, resource extraction, biological diversity, clean water, cultural cohesion, human health, housing, and other societal goals. Not adopting this priority poses a severe, long-term risk to the sustainability of resources, integrity of ecosystems, and human health and existence (Rustem et al., 1992:22).
Michigan's current land use policy consists of the state enabling acts for county/township zoning. Thus, there is no explicit state guidance. Rather, plans are implicitly made on an ad hoc basis with little attempt to incorporate ecological concepts. Many local governments are addressing environmental concerns, including storm water management, wetlands protection and prime farmland preservation. However, a myriad of decisions at the local level impedes the ability to sustain an ecosystem that crosses local borders.
Investing these decisions in the township government system is a significant obstacle to integrated and appropriate land use planning. Though given responsibility for planning, townships do not have adequate regulatory and legislative tools to protect resources and are often weak against local business and development interests. Furthermore, because local governments afford varying degrees of protection, it is difficult to guard natural resources such as air and water, which cross multiple borders within the state. A regional approach to land use planning is much more appropriate than the current state of fragmentation. Michigan's position within the valuable Great Lakes Basin necessitates the establishment of cohesiveness among the jurisdictions within this state to protect and maintain our unique natural resources.
There are signs of progress. The MDNR has several ecologically based planning efforts underway, including state forest plans, river basin assessments and the Region II Ecosystem Management Initiative. The Region II Ecosystem Management Initiative is a pilot study developed in response to the Relative Risk Assessment Project's ranking of land use planning in Michigan. The goal of this partnership between the MDNR and the U.S. Forest Service is to move away from single-species management and try to implement ecosystem management.
Research is necessary to develop land use policies that maintain our biological resources and that our resource managers can implement. Michigan's difficulty in implementing environmental policy is illustrated by the 1991-1992 Green Index ratings. Though ranked 11th in the nation in policy indicators, Michigan is ranked 32nd in actual environmental conditions (Kane, 1992). Thus, research is necessary to understand the obstacles to implementing natural resource policies.
Several examples of land use policy enforcement problems exist. Through a permitting process, the Soil Erosion/Sedimentation Control Act (Act 347, 1972) requires land developers to submit a plan to control soil loss from construction sites. Last year, the MDNR conducted 120 audits of the approximately 370 agencies responsible for issuing permits. One-third of the audited agencies were found unacceptable. In part, this finding is due to rising expectations. However, there were two common problems. First, the agencies did not expect a thorough plan from developers. Second, agencies were not conducting follow-up investigations of every permit issued. Conferring the responsibility for permit issuance to local enforcing agencies throughout the state results in differences in effectiveness and enforcement between localities.
Another example of legislation with enforcement difficulties is the Wetland Protection Act. Complicating the problem is the lack of a universal definition of wetlands capable of providing adequate protection. Existing wetlands policy is effective only to the degree that it is properly enforced. But enforcement depends primarily on citizen reports of violations because local governments seeking development are not motivated to push for compliance. Local officials are not proactively calculating the costs and risks associated with continued wetlands destruction, including adverse effects on the water supply, fish and wildlife communities, as well as runoff and flooding.
Land use changes must be anticipatory. Thus, continued risk assessment efforts should be proactive as well as reactive. Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station research should be directed towards developing a means of modeling that anticipates the consequences and illustrates the cause/effect relationships of various land use choices.
First, there should be a comparative assessment of the land suitability and environmental and human health risks associated with various resource utilization choices. This assessment would involve the identification and comparison of the aggregate costs and benefits of goods and resources generated by the natural resources sectors (agriculture, forestry, mining, tourism and industry).
Second, comparative analysis of existing policies and regulations on land use at the federal, state, regional, county and local levels is necessary to identify needs for policy modifications. Such an analysis would help determine which strategies for economic development and environmental protection should be pursued at what level of government. In this case, it would be appropriate to conduct a comparative analysis of the policies of other states in the Great Lakes region.
Third, research is necessary to develop a statewide database with indicators of environmental and natural resource quality to accurately determine both the actual status of and the potential risks to the environment and quality of life in Michigan. Such a database could be used to compile environmental profiles to more appropriately develop and direct land use strategies and policies.
DEGRADATION OF URBAN ENVIRONMENTS
This risk is closely related to insufficient land use planning. The deterioration of Michigan cities is a significant risk because it involves the concentration of many risks in the urban environment.
This is an important issue because population density and the complications of multiple stresses compound environmental risk in urban areas. Urban problems include air and water pollution, land degradation (sprawl and land contamination), toxic releases, deteriorated and abandoned structures, pesticides, and lead poisoning. It is the coming together of all these environmental stresses in urban settings that creates a great relative risk (Rustem et al., 1992:17).
Approximately 80 percent of Michigan's population lives in urban settings, making efforts for a safer, less polluted urban environment necessary.
An international conference recently took place in Berkeley, California, on eco-cities, ". . . places where people can get around by bicycle or easily accessible public transit, where recycling is a major local industry, where energy is provided by wind power and solar technologies, where tree planting campaigns build community spirit and provide aesthetic and environmental services, and where urban gardens supply food and a focal point for local activities" (Kane, 1992). This is a major change in the "frontier ethic" of the United States, particularly the Western states. Currently, San Francisco, Berkeley and Madison, Wis., are the best examples of eco-cities (Kane, 1992). Research is necessary to examine what these cities have done and determine ways to integrate eco-city ideas into Michigan cities.
Urban sprawl is an important component of urban degradation and is a significant problem in Michigan. "Urban sprawl is a land use pattern characterized by low density and/or uneven physical development occurring at the fringe of the urbanized area, as well as disinvestment and abandonment of older urbanized areas" (RDI, 1992:11). While examples of this land use pattern can be found throughout the state, Detroit and the region surrounding it provide an excellent illustration. At one point, growth in the Detroit area extended from a healthy urban core. In the 1960s, however, outward growth began subtracting from the urban center, and this trend is forecast to continue. In 1992, the Regional Development Initiative report published by the Southeast Michigan Council of Governments made projections based on a business-as-usual scenario. The report projected that by 2010, sprawl will consume 40 percent more land in the seven-county area of southeastern Michigan for a population growth of 6 percent.
This land use pattern is costly for all residents of the region. "A metropolitan area that hopes to remain economically vital is a region that must be seen by businesses and people as a good place to live and do business because of its quality of life. That image is severely compromised when the reality is a region where the center is slowly withering. A healthy metropolitan area requires a healthy core" (RDI, 1992:13).
In addition to social and economic costs, urban sprawl and degradation inflict substantial environmental costs. The urban environment is encroaching on prime agricultural land, wildlife populations, wetlands and other valuable natural resources at an alarming rate.
Soil erosion is not the only means by which Michigan loses farmland....(A)griculture faces pressure from those who wish to develop the land for "urban uses": shopping centers, condominiums, apartment complexes, subdivisions of single-family homes, even factories and prisons. Nationwide, such conversions swallow up two million acres of farmland each year. In Michigan, cropland fell by 3.4 million acres between 1940 and 1982. The battle is especially acute in this state because much of our prime farmland is near large metropolitan areas in southern Michigan (Rustem and Cooper, nd:6).
The Farmland and Open Space Preservation Act of 1974 is an important example of policy efforts to protect agricultural land. This act grants income tax credits to agricultural landowners who will not convert their land to other uses for at least 10 years. It also exempts farmland from assessments for development-related public expenditures (e.g., sewers). However, the long-term effectiveness of this policy has been questioned. "This attempt to preserve farmland is only a stopgap, discouraging only a few from selling their land" (Rustem and Cooper, nd:7).
In 1992, a citizen advisory group was appointed by a committee of the Michigan House of Representatives to examine the impacts of government policies on urban sprawl and determine ways they can be changed to encourage reinvestment in urban areas. The group's recommendations were incorporated into four bills, which passed in the Michigan House and Senate in December 1993 and were enrolled as act numbers 307, 308, 309 and 310 of the Public Acts of 1993. These bills amend Michigan's strict liability laws for contaminated land and are intended to stimulate more rapid recycling of urban land through the use of such mechanisms as risk-based cleanups (Bails). In its report, the citizen advisory group states, "Private reinvestment is critical to revitalizing our cities, and while many factors impact on private decisions to invest in new developments, concern over historic environmental contamination is a major impediment; discouraging developers, investors, and lending institutions from risking capital on property that is contaminated or potentially contaminated."
Research by the MAES could study the connection between urban sprawl and the sustainability of agricultural production, wildlife populations and related natural resource benefits of undeveloped land in southern Michigan. Research is also necessary to reevaluate land use laws and determine how legislation could affect reinvestment and redevelopment in the urban core instead of continued sprawl. For example, Michigan property tax reform could have a major impact on land use patterns in the state. Preserving open space may not be as likely if tax credits for doing so are no longer in place. Research is needed to understand the impact of such a reform. This illustrates the need to anticipate risks to natural resources and the necessity to begin integrating environmental concerns into all policy arenas.
ENERGY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION: PRACTICES AND CONSEQUENCES
Michigan is primarily an energy-consuming state. It does have about 5,000 producing oil and natural gas wells, but 89 percent of its petroleum, 80 percent of its natural gas and 100 percent of its coal are imported (Rustem et al., 1992). Thus, the projection of a considerable increase in the cost of energy will have a significant impact on Michigan.
The dependency of key Michigan industries on energy should give the state great interest in this issue. "Michigan's reliance on durable goods manufacturing, tourism, and agriculture all place Michigan in a relatively vulnerable position with respect to the economic effects of the cost of energy" (Rustem et al., 1992:35).
Michigan should have an interest in developing and using less polluting, more efficient fuels _ otherwise, our vehicles have the potential to become obsolete. Michigan should also have an interest in developing more efficient boat engines, both to conserve energy and to protect our water resources.
Additionally, Michigan agriculture will suffer as the price of energy rises.
Nearly every nation and every industry around the globe has been profligate in its use of petroleum products. Between 1959 and 1979, global fossil fuel use quadrupled. The days of cheap fossil fuel are numbered, and prices will skyrocket as supplies dwindle. This will have grave consequences for U.S. agriculture, which has placed great stock in cheap petroleum products _ for fuel, pesticides, and fertilizer _ as the avenue to greater productivity. Food production more than doubled between 1950 and 1970, as farmers increased petroleum use fivefold (Rustem and Cooper, nd:9).
Michigan's relatively short growing season will create additional difficulty for agriculture in this state to compete nationally in the face of rising energy costs.
Research should be directed toward the development and use of alternative sources of energy. Renewable sources include solar, wind, water, and biomass. Furthermore, current knowledge must be incorporated into policy. The states can play a major role in improving energy policies because of their role in regulating utility rates, building codes, appliance standards, transportation, and the use of energy in government buildings and by government equipment. "Commitment is what is most needed in the area of renewable energy. The sun, oceans and the earth provide the means, and scientists have already made tremendous steps in providing the technologies. What is lacking is policy support" (Kane, 1992:30, emphasis added). Without government support, these technologies will remain underdeveloped and will not achieve widespread use. Government support of technology development may not even be necessary if energy prices approach true market values.
Energy conservation also deserves research attention in the face of rising energy costs.
Energy efficiency is the greatest "source" of new energy available. It cuts the costs that must be carried by energy users and providers, it lowers the pollution that enters the atmosphere, soil, and water, it reduces the extraction of materials from the earth and all the degradation that goes along with it, and yet it maintains society's supply of energy (Kane, 1992:25).
Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station research should be directed to exploring means of improving energy efficiency, indicating a tie to the issue of environmental awareness because of the public's role in energy conservation.
GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND STRATOSPHERIC OZONE DEPLETION
Global climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion are both high-high risks that are global in scope, interconnecting all parts of the world. Localities can collectively contribute to addressing these problems. Michigan should not avoid efforts to address these risks, believing that they are futile at the state level. "The state cannot solve these problems alone, but it can take a leadership position. Michigan can set an example and contribute to the solution by ensuring that state policies do not exacerbate the problem" (Rustem et al., 1992:17). Furthermore, the state should take responsibility to contribute to the solution because of its responsibility in contributing to the problem. "Michigan, as an agricultural state, with 9.3 million people and a high rate of resource use, likely contributes proportionally more to the greenhouse effect than most areas of equivalent size" (Rustem et al., 1992:41).
Both global climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion have the potential to permanently interfere with Michigan's environment. For example, depletion of the earth's ozone layer has grave consequences for agriculture. "Billions of dollars in crop losses are likely if ultraviolet radiation - from which the ozone protects us - reaches the earth in greater intensity" (Rustem and Cooper, nd:10). There are also enormous consequences for human health, including increased rates of skin cancer and cataracts and potential suppression of the immune system (Rustem et al., 1992).
Chlorine and bromine compounds have been shown to be primarily responsible for ozone destruction. The principal sources are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons. These chemicals remain in the upper atmosphere for over a century, with each chlorine atom destroying 100,000 ozone molecules before it is removed.
Michigan should find ways to contribute to ozone protection. Other states and localities throughout the nation have already made large strides in "acting locally." One example is Wisconsin Electric's appliance collection program. Wisconsin Electric's 900,000 customers can call the company when they want to dispose of their old appliances. Wisconsin Electric gives the customer a $50 U.S. savings bond or check and ensures that both CFCs and reusable metal are collected. Every year, between 30,000 and 60,000 old appliances are collected, preventing the release of CFCs and saving landfill space. Between 1987 and 1990, this program prevented 38,000 pounds of CFCs from being released into the atmosphere (Malaspina et al., 1992).
Another example of local action on this global issue is in Irvine, California. Irvine has adopted a strict local ordinance controlling the use of CFCs. The city showed great initiative in contributing to the solution.
"We've got a moral obligation in this matter," said Mayor Agran when the resolution was passed in 1989. "Local governments can't just sit back and wait for national laws and international treaties. If we wait until all these people take action, we might as well kiss off the future of the globe" (Malaspina et al., 1992:81).
Many localities are taking responsibility and contributing innovative solutions to global problems.
The Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station can direct research attention to this search for appropriate solutions. As one example, research is necessary to determine the potential sources of CFCs in Michigan consumer products. This research could also help prepare Michigan industry for the control and phase-out of these ozone-depleting chemicals under the 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act.
LACK OF ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
In 1987, the EPA published a report, "Unfinished Business: A Comparative Assessment of Environmental Problems." This study by an EPA task force looked at residual risks, comparing problems in a non-programmatic context for the first time. Though the task force found discrepancy between environmental risks and EPA resource allocation, it found correlation between public perception of risks and EPA priorities (EPA, 1990).
Though sensitive to environmental matters, the public ranks risks differently than the Michigan Relative Risk Assessment Project did. The public may allocate money to cleaning contaminated sites, but this money could be better spent on more highly ranked risks. Furthermore, regardless of concern about the condition of the environment and natural resources, the public is often unwilling to invest in solutions. The public is usually not willing to pay for solutions to environmental and social problems that do not affect their health and welfare directly and individually; and politicians want to avoid increasing taxes. Environmental education should address the issue of the greater good and the global community.
The gap between public and scientific understanding of risk must be reduced, and the subjective values that the public places on risks must also be understood. We must try to understand public concerns. This dichotomy between the public and the scientific perspectives is a challenge to a pluralistic democracy, where the support of citizens is important to successful efforts at solving these problems (EPA, 1990).
Environmental problems are no longer problems of the sciences as much as they are "people problems." Environmental risks result from choices about resource and energy usage. These choices are made by individuals, communities and businesses. "So now one of the most important questions facing society is how to influence and shape individual, community and business choices so that environmental risks are reduced" (EPA, 1990:11). Education, ethics and economic incentives are means of influencing choices. This is particularly important as our choices become more limited by the prior and current usage of finite resources.
Natural resources are biophysical systems, but resources do not become resources without people. Likewise, problems do not become problems without people. It is necessary to inform the public that they are the driving force behind the creation and the solution of environmental problems. Though humans are one component of an integrated ecosystem, human activities and resource usage tend to cut across all other ecosystem components. Thus, rather than viewing natural resources as integrated systems within an integrated ecosystem, people see resources as distinct entities defined by their use to humans.
It is necessary to find a way to change the public's appreciation of the complexities of the environment and these risk issues. Many of the issues in the high-high and high categories involve long-term risks and risks that are hard to see (e.g., loss of biodiversity, ozone depletion). Because public pressure can be a major force in addressing environmental issues, an educated and properly informed public is essential.
Currently, many people separate the environment from their lives, treating it as a museum piece to experience occasionally and not understanding the role of the environment in everyday life. Research is needed to understand this perspective and develop ways to integrate natural resources into all aspects of life. A Roper Organization, Inc., 1990 survey of attitudes and behavior in relation to the environment found that more than 90 percent of Americans depict themselves as environmentalists. "There is a clear gap between what American people are saying and doing. This gap stems from the belief that an individual has a very limited effect on environmental problems" (Rustem et al., 1992:43). Research is necessary to understand why this perception exists and how to change it.
Research needs to find a way to integrate environmental education into the curriculum of a diversity of courses, not only science classes. "Survival of the planet depends on whether present and future generations can become ecologically literate _ gain an awareness of the interconnectedness of all life" (Rustem et al., 1992:42). Current environmental education efforts in Michigan are very fragmented. Though some individuals and groups have developed environmental education materials and programs, these efforts are uncoordinated.
There is no easy way to get information about environmental education opportunities statewide, no coordinating agency, no umbrella organization, no central clearinghouse, no phone number to call . . . . Also, there is no long-term state commitment to funding environmental education (Rustem et al., 1992:43).
This is a significant obstacle to the development of environmental literacy among Michigan residents.
Recent indications suggest that this issue is being addressed. The Michigan departments of Natural Resources and Education signed a memorandum of understanding in 1988 that identifies components of cooperation between the two departments, including formation of an interagency task force (MDE-MDNR) and a citizens advisory committee, as well as a Michigan environmental education policy (Rustem et al., 1992).
ALTERATION OF SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY, INCLUDING THE GREAT LAKES
Michigan has significant groundwater and surface water resources. These are affected by both chemical and physical stresses resulting from water use. Michigan's major water use categories are thermoelectric power generation, self-supplied industry, public supply and irrigation. Water resources are also used extensively for recreation.
Michigan's use of its water resources for irrigation and the resultant contamination of water from this practice are a major concern, and one that provides an example of the chemical stresses placed on water in this state.
Perhaps one of the most troublesome and ill-recognized problems in water resources management results from the "mining" of groundwater for consumptive use (for instance, irrigation) that may have consequences far beyond immediate concerns of sustaining agricultural production or groundwater discharge (Rustem et al., 1992:26).
Michigan lacks effective policy addressing irrigation and water use by industry and municipalities. The resulting contamination can bioaccumulate in fish, diminishing their commercial value. This demonstrates the need for proactively determining consequences when making decisions and developing policy.
County drain commissioners have a major impact on the hydrology and fisheries of Michigan by placing physical stresses on our water resources. Wetlands have been lost for the development of agricultural production, highways and parking lots, residential and commercial building sites, industrial plants, and marinas and harbors.
The consequences of these attempts to capitalize on or engineer relief from natural water occurrence, distribution, and flow dynamics cross-cut a number of areas of environmental concern and residual risk. Many publications and datasets point out the critical hydraulic interactions between groundwater and surface water systems. This knowledge argues for a holistic approach to the management and use of Michigan's water resources (Rustem et al., 1992:26, emphasis added).
This again demonstrates that addressing one risk involves addressing a number of related issues. There are intimate relationships between many of these high-high and high risks.
Research should be directed towards more anticipa-tory water use planning. Michigan should construct a water budget ". . . that, even if based initially on incomplete data on water flow, use, loss, storage, and so forth, it would provide a reasonable framework for evaluating potential risks involved in new or continuing hydrologic alterations" (Rustem et al., 1992:26). Research supported by the MAES could fill some of the gaps in the data so that more effective water use planning could become a reality.
ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION OF AIR TOXICS
This issue is also significantly tied to land use planning, particularly the appropriate placement of industry within Michigan. The air toxics of greatest concern are those that have the capacity to bioaccumulate in the food chain, threatening both human and wildlife health. Those identified as of greatest concern for the Great Lakes Basin are polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), DDT and metabolites, dieldrin, toxaphene, 2,3,7,8-TCDD (dioxin), 2,3,7,8-TCDF (furan), mirex, hexachlorobenzene, mercury, alkylated lead and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) (Rustem et al., 1992). The primary means through which these toxics enter the Michigan watershed is atmospheric deposition. Following deposition in watershed sediments, they bioaccumulate as they travel through the food chain (Rustem et al., 1992).
Some efforts have been made to control air toxics. Direct discharges of toxics or the use of substances containing them have been banned. As a result, recent measurements of contaminant concentration in watershed sediments and fish tissue indicate that concentrations are diminishing. "However, recent trends indicate that the concentrations of some of the toxics may be leveling off at concentrations above desired values. The remaining residuals are thought to be due largely to atmospheric deposition" (Rustem et al., 1992:27).
The 1990 Clean Air Act amendments list 189 air toxics. The Michigan DNR has developed a list of 250 air toxics and is developing emission limitations for these toxics (Rustem et al., 1992).
These air toxics are significantly affecting Michigan waterways. However, because of the transboundary movement of atmospheric transport and deposition of air toxics, efforts to address this issue must be multistate. The Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station could support research to investigate the problem so that it is better understood and a greater capacity for addressing it can be developed.
PLANT AND ANIMAL BIODIVERSITY AND HABITAT MODIFICATION
Land use planning also has an effect on wildlife resources and habitats. The approach to decision making continues to be one part biology, two parts technology, three parts economics and ten parts politics. This underlines the necessity to heighten environmental awareness so that it may affect planning and policy.
The impact of the loss of species may not be immediately perceived, but the loss of genetic diversity has important consequences over time (EPA, 1990). When genetic diversity is diminished, organisms and biological compounds are lost that have potential value and importance to agriculture, silviculture and medicine. "Since all manner of human existence is dependent on environmental health, maintenance of natural habitats and native biodiversity are inexorably linked to human health and welfare" (Rustem et al., 1992:28). Human activities resulting in species extinction may eventually result in human extinction. Ironically, we must think beyond ourselves to ensure our own survival.
Like the air toxics issue, this problem is the result of human activities both inside and outside Michigan. Most of the problem, however, is the direct result of Michigan activities.
Habitat degradation, and associated losses in biodiversity, result directly from such diverse stresses as recreational activity, impoundment of rivers, agriculture, forest practices, wildlife suppression, wildlife and fisheries management, urban sprawl, wetland dredging and filling, and construction of highways and transmission corridors (Rustem et al., 1992:28).
Many of the other RRAP issues can be identified in this list. Once again, this illustrates the integrated nature of these problems. Solutions must also be integrated. Appropriately addressing the land use issue also addresses the loss of biodiversity and habitat degradation. "Aquatic, wetland, and terrestrial habitats are intricately intermeshed. Stresses on one habitat inevitably result in stresses on another" (Rustem et al., 1992:28). The use of our land and water resources is closely tied to the well-being of our wildlife resources.
Public interest has a role in the maintenance and enhancement of wildlife resources. Currently, resource managers make decisions about modifying habitats to favor certain species because the public has greater interest in these species. The Michigan Department of Natural Resources gets its funds for resource management from hunting and fishing licenses and the Fish and Game Protection Fund. Thus, the expenditures of these funds are heavily influenced by hunters and anglers. For example, hunters wanted more deer _ now Michigan's deer population is so large that some areas are experiencing significant crop losses. The wildlife management process is disconnected from other members of society. For example, funds generated from Michigan State Park users are directed solely to operating the parks, with none directed towards wildlife enhancement.
Some policy efforts have addressed the loss of wildlife and habitat. We know, that as a result of human activities, over 50 percent of Michigan's original wetlands are gone. No-net-loss policies were an attempt to halt this destruction, so wetlands were created. Manmade wetlands, however, are unable to completely mimic naturally occurring ones.
Unfortunately, no-net-loss policies focus attention on total wetland acreage and divert attention from important issues of individual wetland size, configuration, location in the watershed, connections to other wetlands and habitat heterogeneity. These attributes often impart a large portion of the functions and value of a wetland (Rustem et al., 1992:28).
It is difficult, if not impossible, to recreate a natural wetland.
Michigan policy efforts have also been directed towards wildlife. The Michigan Biological Diversity Conservation Act, Act 93, PA of 1992, is the first state legislation of its kind in the country. It directs the legislature to conduct a study of Michigan biological diversity. This study, however, is already 1 1/2 years overdue.
Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station research can make important contributions in addressing this issue. To date, Michigan and federal agencies have directed most attention and resources to species that are utilized by humans or are threatened or endangered. Thus, there are large gaps in knowledge about other species.
All other plants and animals are managed by default as corollaries to game, fish, forest and agriculture management. As a result of the limited attention that these "in-between" organisms receive, very little is known about their habitat requirements, distribution and population levels (Rustem et al., 1992:29).
The Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station could direct research to address these deficiencies in current knowledge.
Research could also be directed towards the development of ecosystem management. Currently, we continue to employ single-species management, which is inappropriate and ineffective in maintaining an integrated ecosystem. Related to this, research is necessary to understand how to get other segments of the public involved in wildlife resource management, broadening funding, involvement and interest.
INDOOR POLLUTANTS
Nine major source-specific indoor air contaminants have been identified: radon; environmental tobacco smoke; biological contaminants (bacteria, fungi, animal dander, cat saliva, etc.); gases from stoves, heaters, fireplaces and chimneys (mainly carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter); household products; formaldehyde; pesticides; asbestos and lead (Rustem et al., 1992).
The Clean Air Act and other federal and state regulations have addressed the control of outdoor air pollution. Indoor air pollution control needs to receive more attention (Rustem et al., 1992).
Though the importance of indoor pollution and its high risk RRAP designation are recognized, indoor pollution cannot be effectively addressed through natural resources policy and so will receive no further attention in this discussion.
NON-POINT-SOURCE DISCHARGES TO SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER, INCLUDING THE GREAT LAKES
Both surface water and groundwater have been demonstrated to be susceptible to non-point-source pollution. Precipitation causes land runoff or soil percolation (depending on soil type) of contaminants into our water sources. These contaminants include sediment, pathogenic microorganisms, nutrients and chemicals (pesticides and fertilizers) (Rustem et al., 1992).
In 1988, the Michigan Department of Natural Resources conducted a survey to identify the major rural and urban sources of non-point-source pollution. Rural sources include septic systems, streambank erosion and agricultural practices, and urban sources include construction site erosion and urban runoff (Rustem et al., 1992). These sources contribute to Michigan water quality problems: nutrient enrichment, heavy metals, oils, persistent chlorinated organic compounds, and problems from sewer overflows and soil erosion.
This is another issue tied significantly to the ways in which land is used and abused. The MDNR has identified a substantial number of land uses that put water at risk of contamination.
Non-point-source pollution is by its very nature a problem that requires an integrated approach to management. Non-point pollution is produced by diverse land use activities that cut across agencies and organizations as well as program areas within these groups (Rustem et al., 1992:44, emphasis added).
Such a problem will require an integrated solution.
Efforts have been made to address non-point-source pollution. Control efforts became more comprehensive with the 1987 Clean Water Act amendments, which require states to identify affected watersheds and develop a plan to manage contaminants. The MDNR's management plan was submitted in 1988 and approved by the EPA. Since approval, several components have been implemented. Best management practices (BMPs) have been developed for several categories of land use to prevent or reduce water pollution. BMPs currently exist for construction sites, golf courses and forestry (Rustem et al., 1992).
Research is necessary to understand further the movement of contaminants, particularly agricultural pesticides and fertilizers, into groundwater and surface water. Means of diminishing the sources of contaminants should be researched, including alternatives to pesticides and ways to encourage their use. The runoff of animal wastes is also a problem, particularly when animals are concentrated in a small area. It may be necessary to develop new methods of animal waste disposal. "Groundwater discharge permits alone are unlikely to be viewed as adequate to control massive animal waste. Since 50,000 hogs create as much fecal and urinary waste as a community of 125,000 people, facilities may be required to treat waste before it can be discharged into the environment" (Rustem and Cooper, p.4). Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station researchers can contribute research to further understand and control sources of non-point-source pollution.
TRACE METALS IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Michigan is both a source and a recipient of trace metals. In low concentrations, trace metals (metals and metalloids) are naturally part of the earth's sediment, soil, rocks, minerals, water, air and biota (Rustem et al., 1992).
Michigan ecosystems receive additional trace metals from human activities within the state and as the result of transboundary movement from other states.
Of major concern is the build-up of metals in the environment due to anthropogenic emissions, mainly from fossil-fuel combustion, waste incineration, manufacturing processes, mining, and smelting . . . . The major anthropogenic sources for arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead are historic pesticide use, coal burning, iron/steel production, and motor fuel/industry, respectively (Rustem et al., 1992:48-49).
The International Joint Commission (IJC) targeted arsenic, cadmium, mercury and lead as critical contaminants in the Great Lakes region because these four metals are toxic even at low concentrations. Other metals that are essential to life at low concentrations become toxic at higher concentrations. Therefore, it is necessary to broaden our concern to include more metals than IJC's critical four (Rustem et al., 1992).
Further research is needed to increase understanding of the sources, pathways, effects and threshold levels of trace metals in the Michigan environment. "The geochemistry of trace metals (and other elements as well) in the Michigan environment and how this geochemistry relates to health and disease is poorly understood" (Rustem et al., 1992:49). The threshold at which metals become dangerous needs further understanding if we are to develop policy that protects human and environmental health.
CONCLUSION
The Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station has an important role to play in addressing the risks that Michigan's natural resources face. Research directed toward these issues will significantly contribute to more effective planning and policy. It is important to remember, however, that science is only one contributor to the development of natural resources policy. Remembering this is particularly important, given the scientific emphasis of risk assessment. Important social decisions should be informed by risk analysis, but other factors also enter the equation. Risk assessment cannot capture all social values. Consequently, the utilization of risk assessment as a policy guide depends on risk communication. Meaningful dialogue between the experts and the public must be established.
Public policy is not driven by scientific knowledge alone. Public attitudes, economic reality, and the cooperation of the business community are among the factors affecting the state's ability to respond to environmental issues. A plan is required to identify and account for these factors in order to develop useful environmental strategies (Rustem et al., 1992:21).
When we address natural resource risks, we must not only integrate them with one another and treat them collectively, but we must also integrate this collective into other policy arenas. A fundamental lesson of the Relative Risk Analysis Project is that these issues cannot be addressed separately. Unless those involved in both generating and using the SAPMINR project adopt an integrative approach, this project, like many before it, will fall into the trap of fragmentation. A means of integrating economic and environmental considerations must be researched and developed. The influence of social conditions and public attitudes and behavior on environmental decay must be understood. Such an integrative effort will cease the fragmentation of our thinking and allow planning and policy to better maintain and enhance Michigan's natural resources.
References
Bails, J. "Urban Environmental Dilemma." Urban Redevelopment and Environmental Liability Seminar.
Engler, John. 1990. New Priorities for a New Decade in Environmental Protection. Action agenda paid for by the Engler for Governor Committee, Lansing, Mich.
Gibbard, A. 1986. "Risk and Value." Values at Risk. Edited by D. MacLean. New Jersey: Rowman and Allanheld, pp. 94-112.
Kane, H. 1992. Time for Change: A New Approach to Environment and Development. Edited by Linda Starke. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Leonard, H., and R. Zeckhauser. 1986. "Cost-Benefit Analysis Applied to Risks: Its Philosophy and Legitimacy." Values at Risk. Edited by D. MacLean. New Jersey: Rowman and Allanheld, pp. 31-48.
Malaspina, M., K. Schafer and R. Wiles. 1992. What Works: Air Pollution Solutions. Washington, D.C.: The Environmental Exchange.
National Research Council. 1993. Issues in Risk Assessment. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
RDI. 1992. Regional Development Initiative: Final Report of the RDI Oversight Committee. Southeast Michigan Council of Governments.
Ruckelshaus, W.D. 1990. "Risk, Science, and Democracy." Readings in Risk. Edited by T. Glickman and M. Gough. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future.
Rustem, W.R., W.E. Cooper, S. Harrington and A. Armoudian. 1992. Michigan's Environment and Relative Risk. Lansing, Mich.: Public Sector Consultants.
Rustem, W.R., and W.E. Cooper. (nd) Agriculture and the Environment in 2020 (white paper).
Spotts, D.M. 1991. "Distinguishing Features of Travel and Tourism in Michigan." Travel and Tourism in Michigan: A Statistical Profile. East Lansing, Mich.: Travel, Tourism and Recreation Resource Center of Michigan State University.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Reducing Risk: Setting Priorities and Strategies for Environmental Protection. SAB-EC-90-021.
Whipple, C. 1989. "Non-pessimistic Risk Assessment and de Minimis Risk as Risk Management Tools." The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human Health Hazards: A Textbook of Case Studies. Edited by D.J. Pautenbach. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., pp.1105-1119.
Status and Potential of Michigan Natural Resources List of Reports
Acknowledgements
Overview Reports SR 67 --SAPMINR Highlights SR 68 --Michigan Natural Resources Policy SR 69 --Demographic, Social and Economic Trends SR 70 --Integrated Natural Resource Systems
Focus Reports SR 71 --Timber and Timberland Resources SR 72 --Lumber, Furniture, Composition Panels and Other Solidwood Products SR 73 --Pulp, Paper, Allied Products and Wood Energy SR 74 --Fisheries SR 75 --Wildlife SR 76 --Tourism SR 77 --Boating and Underwater Recreation SR 78 --Camping, Trails and Dispersed Recreation SR 79 --Water Resources SR 80 --Land Resources SR 81 --Nonrenewable Resources SR 82 --Natural Resources and Communities
The Agricultural Experiment Station at Michigan State University wishes to acknowledge the important contributions of the people listed below. Their expertise and time commitment were valuable to the completion of this overview report on Michigan natural resources policy. Jack Bails, Public Sector Consultants Henry Campa, Michigan State University Bill Cooper, Michigan State University Eckhart Dersch, Michigan State University Shirley Gammon, U.S. Soil Conservation Service Peter Kakela, Michigan State University Larry Leefers, Michigan State University Richard Mikula, Michigan Department of Natural Resources Bill Rockwell, Michigan State University Dean Sandell, Michigan Department of Natural Resources John Schwartz, Michigan State University Chris Shafer, Michigan Department of Natural Resources Ger Schultink, Michigan State University Bill Taylor, Michigan State University Chris Vanderpool, Michigan State University
Reports on the Status and Potential of Michigan Natural Resources
This special report is one of a series (listed below) prepared for a project of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station (MAES) called the "Status and Potential of Michigan Natural Resources" (SAPMINR).
The project was designed to take an inventory of the current status of Michigan natural resources, identify emerging trends, and appraise future opportunities. The purpose was to assist MAES in establishing priorities and planning programs.
Both overview and focused topic assessments have been made. The overview reports provide background information on the political, economic, and social environments influencing Michigan natural resources. The focus reports examine specific resources, including timberland resources, fisheries and wildlife resources, parks and recreational resources, and land and water resources.
The SAPMINR project began in early 1993. At that time, interdisciplinary teams of MSU faculty members, graduate students, federal and state government officials, and others collaborated to develop preliminary reports. In March 1994, a SAPMINR conference took place during MSU's Agriculture and Natural Resources Week. The objective of the conference was to provide a public forum for discussion of the preliminary reports. Based on interaction with conference participants, the authors prepared the final drafts of the special reports (SR). This report should not be considered final. Efforts to analyze the past and forecast the future are ongoing. Even so, this report is a base for dialogue on both the status and potential of Michigan natural resources. To receive any of the reports listed below, contact: MSU Bulletin Office, Room 10B Agriculture Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1039.
The Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station is an equal opportunity employer and complies with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972.
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