Michigan State University Extension
Ag Experiment Station Research Report - RR556098
01/08/99
Relationships Among Values, Proximity of Clothing to Self, Clothing Interest, Anticipated Outcomes and Perceived Quality of Life
Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Michigan State University Research Report
October 1997 Research Report 556
Clothing in the Self-System of Adolescents: Relationships Among Values, Proximity of Clothing to Self, Clothing Interest, Anticipated Outcomes and Perceived Quality of Life
M. Suzanne Sontag, Mihaela Peteu, and Jongnam Lee(1)
(1) Professor and Project Director; Doctoral Student and Research Assistant, Department of Human Environment and Design, College of Human Ecology, Michigan State University, East Lansing; and Instructor, Department of Clothing and Textiles, College of Human Ecology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea, respectively.
Introduction
Clothing is a major aspect of personal appearance that often bears culturally shared meanings. While interacting with others, we have learned these cultural meanings from birth. In everyday life, we realize and validate ourselves as we communicate our thoughts, values, attitudes or feelings to others and receive responses from others, both verbally and non-verbally. Through processes of discourse and appearance, we facilitate not only shared meaning but also self-formation (Stone, 1962).
Adolescents may experience vagueness, confusion, and discontinuity of the self due to redefinition of their roles as they emerge from childhood (Steinberg, 1985). In a period of such uncertainty, strong approval from and a feeling of belonging to significant others may be very important to adolescents (Jensen, 1985). During this period, adolescents also go through a transition in significant others, with peers exerting an increasing influence relative to parents.
Clothing becomes an important domain of life in the process of redefinition of the self and in the attraction to a different group of significant others. Appraisals by their peers of their appearance and actions become a major concern in the lives of adolescents and play a significant role in developing their self-concepts (Burns, 1979). Adolescents identify themselves with their peers and develop their self-concepts, in part, through conformity to preferred styles of clothing, attitudes, or actions established in the adolescent subculture (Smucker, 1969; Smucker & Creekmore, 1972; Steinberg, 1985). Therefore, adolescents may become more conscious about and interested in their clothing than younger children. Adolescents select or use clothing to strive toward or to maintain a salient self-concept by reference to meanings of clothing operative within their subculture (Levin, 1992).
If adolescents regard clothing as a tool for validation of the self or inclusion in social interaction through which the self can be established, they may value clothing more than other objects as part of the self. They may perceive clothing as central to the self and psychologically become linked to clothing. The centrality and psychological linkage of the person to clothing is what is meant by the psychological closeness or proximity of clothing to self.
The proximity of clothing to self concept has evolved within the context of quality of life theory building and assessment and has been useful in explaining the contribution of clothing to perceived life quality (Sontag, 1978/1979). For some adults, clothing has been found to contribute to a sense of well-being or quality of life along with other domains of life important to individuals (e.g., family, housing, work) (Sontag, 1978/1979). Fulfillment of needs is important to a sense of positive quality of life (Bubolz & Sontag, 1993). Pedersen (1989) defines need satisfiers as being "elements any of whose use fulfills a need" and argues that clothing is a need satisfier rather than a basic need as long as "it is not consistently required cross-culturally for life maintenance." Clothing satisfies basic physiological needs for survival along with food and shelter, but it also satisfies psychosocial needs. Many studies have shown that higher order needs, such as belonging and self-esteem, can be satisfied through clothing (e.g., Callis, 1982; Kelly & Eicher, 1970; Kwon, 1991; Littrell & Eicher, 1973; Smucker & Creekmore, 1972). If the psychosocial needs satisfied by clothing are also considered along with the basic physiological needs, clothing can contribute to a quality existence. The perceived quality of life of adolescents may be influenced by their feelings about their clothing because clothing is very salient to them. Educators and parents need to comprehend adolescents' patterns of clothing behavior and realize the various needs that clothing satisfies.
Dress codes and school uniforms in the public schools have become a controversial national issue centered primarily around concerns for personal safety, facilitation of the education process, and freedom of expression. Proponents of school uniforms argue that school uniforms may reduce social comparisons due to differences in economic ability to purchase designer brand clothing, lessen violence associated with gang dress, and facilitate learning (Thomas, 1994). Opponents of school uniforms reject the premise that uniforms will solve these problems and raise legal issues related to the constitutional right to freedom of expression (Evans, 1996). However, the history of rulings by the courts offers schools an opportunity to impose strict dress codes or school uniforms where a "valid educational purpose" can be presented (Majestic, 1991).
Perhaps equally or more significant is this question: "How should clothing be used to support the self, in terms of both self-concept and self-esteem?" Holloman (1995) suggests that professionals should help young people minimize their dependence on dress to validate the self and build self-worth. An alternative action may be to help youths learn to use clothing to express an authentic self-concept and allow their dress and other aspects of their material environment to assist them in building self-worth in a way that does not compromise the individual or the common good. This approach is not committed or tied to any one form of dress. Before schools adopt a particular policy, we believe that more information is needed about the importance of clothing in the self-system of adolescents.
Conceptual Framework
A human ecological perspective of the individual person in interaction with his or her environment guided the design of this study (Vis. 1). In previous work, the project director and another colleague have conceptualized the environment as the total surroundings for human beings and as the context for their behavior, growth, and development (Bubolz & Sontag, 1993; Sontag & Bubolz, 1996). They proposed three embedded, interrelated environments: the natural physical-biological, the social-cultural, and the human built (or designed) environments, which furnish the resources necessary for life. As Figure 1 indicates, environments can be conceptualized in terms of magnitude or physical or psychological "nearness" to the individual (i.e., proximal, distal; micro, macro; local, global). The individual person in interaction with these environments constitutes a human ecosystem.
The individual self-system, a subsystem of the total person, is formed and modified through dynamic interaction of the person within this complex environment through time. We conceptualize the individual self-system as comprising (a) the person's perception and experience of his or her biological and psychosocial characteristics- with this as a basis, the individual engages in (b) the process of incorporation of the environment with the self and forms (c) a cognitive and affective response of the self to the environment. As consequences of this interactive process, (d) personal outcomes are also part of the individual self-system (Vis. 2). This conception of the self-system builds on the long history of philosophical and psychological thought that conceives the self as both subject or agent and object, knower and known, involved in reflexive and other processes (Hattie, 1992).
Biologically, the person can be characterized by physical attributes such as sex, age, height, weight, body build, and race. Psychosocially, the person has developed through time a particular self-concept and level of self-esteem. In addition, individuals have values that they try to realize through various domains of life. Both biological and psychosocial characteristics are influenced by one's perception and experience. For example, an adolescent's image of his or her body may or may not be an accurate representation of the actual size and shape of the body; the body image may be distorted, as frequently occurs in people who suffer from anorexia nervosa or bulimia. Body image is also affected by a person's experience with objects (such as mirrors and clothing) and with other people, (e.g., from comments significant others make to the person about his or her body). The cognitive appraisals of these individual characteristics, as expressed in descriptions, expectations, and prescriptions, are components of the self (Hattie, 1992).
Through interaction with various environments, the individual develops an interest in and incorporates selected environments with the self, developing a psychological linkage or proximity to environments that have special meaning for the individual (Andrews & Withey, 1976; Mead, 1934; Sontag & Schlater, 1982).(2) Others may psychologically distance themselves from certain environments because of past experiences. As a result of this incorporation of self with selected environments, individuals will have cognitive and affective responses to these environments-for example, making judgments about the adequacy of their clothing or anticipating certain outcomes. For example, adolescents who have developed high proximity of clothing to the self may anticipate that their clothing should help them gain a sense of personal competence or make them feel good about themselves. They will also likely make judgments of their clothing adequacy in terms of whether these anticipated outcomes are achieved.
(2) This conceptualization is somewhat analogous to aspects of developmental contextualism. The latter acknowledges the "fusion" of heredity and environment resulting in potentially diverse developmental pathways for a given individual (Ford & Lerner, 1992, 59-64). By fusion is meant that "genes and context . . . are mutually facilitating and constraining in influencing behavior" (p. 60). In this paper we suggest that not only does the environment facilitate and constrain behavior but that the person may begin to view the environment as part of or expressive of the self.
As a consequence of this interactive process, the individual will experience personal outcomes (such as rejection, acceptance, increases or decreases in self-esteem) that will be reflected in his or her affective evaluations of the self and various domains of life. Such evaluations will also affect a person's perceived quality of life or sense of well-being. As (Vis. 2) shows, the personal outcomes experienced by the individual will affect the individual's behavioral response or outputs to the environment. These outputs have consequences for the environment-i.e., environmental outcomes-which, in turn, affect future environmental resource inputs that are perceived and experienced by the individual self-system. For example, if an adolescent feels deprived in clothing relative to his or her peers, the adolescent might respond by getting a part-time job and gaining income that will allow him or her to purchase more clothing. Alternatively, another adolescent may respond by shoplifting clothing from a local store or selling drugs to gain more money to buy clothing.
Newspapers and weekly magazines frequently report the consequences of such actions, not only for the adolescent but also for our society. Data indicate that at the beginning of this decade, about $12 billion in retail merchandise was stolen by American consumers and that 40 percent of apprehended shoplifters were adolescents (Cox, Cox, & Moschis, 1990).
In this report, we focus primarily on the individual self-system and the clothing environment. Data collection took place within the high school setting.
We have chosen the biological characteristics of sex and age as filtered through perception and experience and the psychosocial characteristic of personal values realized through clothing. Bubolz and McKenry (1993) stated that "...gender is used to mean the socially constructed concepts of feminine and masculine that typically accompany the sexual biological categories of females and males" (p. 134). Because people perceive their sex based on experiences they have had through socialization processes, we hereafter refer to gender. In this research, students were asked to identify whether they were male or female. However, we assume that any differences we find between the sexes with respect to the variables investigated are most likely due to gender rather than biology. Similarly, age is a cultural category; its significance and meaning vary historically and across cultures (Marshall, 1994). We assume that reported age reflects the adolescent's experience of that age and that any differences found between age groups are due to this experience within the adolescent culture rather than to the actual quantity of time passed since birth.
With respect to incorporation of environment, we analyze the proximity of clothing to self (hereafter occasionally cited as PCS) and clothing interest. Six anticipated outcomes expected by adolescents through their use of clothing that are related to PCS were chosen as a measure of response to environment. Clothing satisfaction, affective evaluation of domains of life (i.e., other components of environment), and perceived quality of life were the personal outcomes investigated. (Vis. 3) summarizes the measurement model of the individual self-system used in this study and the relationships among the variables investigated.
Purpose and Objectives
The overall purpose of the long-term research program is twofold: (a) to develop and validate a standardized measurement instrument for scaling people on the multidimensional attribute, proximity of clothing to self, and (b) to clarify the position and relationship of PCS within a theoretical system of ecological concepts, processes, and propositions.
Phase I of the study, already completed, included development of a formal scaling model and the construction, selection, and preliminary evaluation of PCS scale items based on qualitative research conducted with persons across the life span. Phase II consisted of a study of Michigan adolescents in selected high schools during spring 1996, whose two objectives were to: (a) study the importance of clothing in the self-system of adolescents and (b) begin to verify the construct validity and reliability of the PCS measurement instrument. This report focuses primarily on the first objective.
Research Questions
Six research questions were posed:
1. What is the relative proximity of the six dimensions of clothing to self by gender and age, and what differences, if any, exist by gender and age?
2. Which value criteria related to clothing are most predictive of proximity of clothing to self?
3. What is the level of clothing interest among adolescents by gender?
4. What is the relationship between PCS and clothing interest and between PCS and anticipated outcomes related to clothing?
5. Which anticipated outcomes related to clothing are most predictive of clothing satisfaction?
6. What domains of life are important to the perceived quality of life of adolescents?
Definitions and Indicators
Proximity of clothing to self is a multidimensional concept conceived as the psychological closeness of clothing to self and interpreted from six dimensions: (a) the structural model of the self, (b) the processual model of the self-communication of self to others, (c) the processual model of self-response to the judgments of others, (d) the evaluative process of self-esteem, (e) the affective process of self-esteem, and (f) body image and body cathexis (Sontag & Lee, 1994; Sontag & Schlater, 1982). The relation of clothing to each of these dimensions is discussed below.
Dimension 1: Clothing in relation to self as structure.
Clothing is not regarded as an object separate from the person but as a portrait of the self-that is, as an organized picture of oneself existing in one's awareness. Clothing is a mirror that reflects much about the person, such as one's image, personality, values, attitudes, beliefs or moods. A person who scores high on this dimension believes that clothing contributes to a sense of unity and constitutes part of her or his identity. If a person with this view wears clothing inconsistent with his or her self-image, the person tends to feel uncomfortable. Therefore, one may try to choose clothing to increase consistency between clothing and the self-image.
Clothing in relation to self as process-introduction.
People rarely think about themselves in isolation from their relations with other people. An individual forms one's self-concept through processes of comparing oneself to others and responding to others' actual or perceived reaction toward one's appearance and behavior. Clothing is thus a medium by which the self is established and validated through an interactive two-way process involving purposeful presentation of the self and the perception of an actual or imagined response to the self by others.
Dimension 2: Clothing in relation to self as process- communication of self to others.
Through clothing, individuals create and send messages about their identity, attitudes, moods, status, and self-regard according to culturally prescribed rules. They consciously select or coordinate clothing to achieve self-defining goals. Clothing helps individuals to enact their social roles. Social roles such as age, gender, or occupation are linked to stereotyped images of clothing and behavior. A person can learn and enact the social role by wearing clothing required by the role. Clothing also provides opportunities for experimenting with and representing identities to others.
Dimension 3: Clothing in relation to self as process- response to judgments of others.
People are conscious to varying degrees of how others think about them. When people receive compliments or criticism about their clothing from others, they internalize these and form personal standards for their appearance based on their response to social standards for appearance. A person imagines how the self appears to others through clothing, imagines how others may judge the self on the basis of this appearance, and experiences positive or negative self-feelings as a result. Such reflected appraisals may guide choice of clothing. If the actual or imagined judgment of self by others is congruent with the self-image, the person should have a consistent self-concept and be satisfied or have positive self-feelings.
Dimension 4: Clothing in relation to self-esteem- evaluative process dominant.
Clothing can positively or negatively affect one's self-worth or self-respect. A person not only compares one's clothing to others' clothing on the basis of a personal or social standard but also evaluates the self in terms of one's confidence, competence, mastery of environment, and social adequacy. In turn, a person acts in accordance with this evaluation. For example, a person may feel more confident when dressed appropriately and may, in turn, act confidently. If a person thinks or feels that his or her clothing is appropriate or desirable, positive self-esteem may result. Clothing can affect confidence in one's abilities, personal qualities, features, or performance.
Dimension 5: Clothing in relation to self-esteem-affective process dominant.
As a result of evaluations made above, people experience an emotional response directed toward the self. This positive or negative affect is expressive of self-esteem and is often verbally expressed with words such as feeling good, bad, content, embarrassed, or comfortable about or with the self. Self-esteem may also affect one's feelings about or behavior toward clothing. For example, individuals who feel bad about themselves may select clothing that reveals or expresses this feeling or helps compensate for it and bolsters their self-esteem.
Dimension 6: Clothing in relation to body image and body cathexis.
Everyone has a picture of her or his body existing in consciousness. This picture can change from time to time or be stable over time. The individual's body image may closely match her or his body figure or be quite distorted. Characteristics of clothing-such as line, style, color, and texture-can help create or modify one's body image. A female adolescent, for example, may perceive that she is fat when she wears loose-fitting clothing. If her perceived body image meets her standards, she may be satisfied with her body and her clothing. The level of satisfaction with or feelings directed toward the body is called cathexis. Body image and body cathexis may affect self-esteem and an individual's clothing behavior. A person may select or wear clothing that reveals or hides parts of the body according to one's body image or body cathexis relative to those parts. Therefore, clothing can play a significant role in enhancing or reflecting an individual's body satisfaction or in compensating for body dissatisfaction.
Each of the six dimensions of the Proximity of Clothing to Self Scale (hereafter cited as the PCS Scale) developed in phase 1 by Sontag and Lee was measured with a subscale containing 13 items, so 78 items comprise the PCS Scale at present. Each item states a relationship between clothing and the self. The items can be classified as proximal or distal with respect to the PCS concept; each one was constructed to measure one and only one dimension of the PCS attribute. Adolescents responded to each item using a six-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Never or almost never true of me to 6 = Always or almost always true of me. Items that were stated in the distal direction were reverse coded before analysis. For each dimension, the mean of the 13 items was calculated for each research participant.
Values related to clothing refer to human values that are realized or actuated through clothing (Sontag & Schlater, 1995). A value is a conception-explicit or implicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group-of the desirable that influences the selection from available modes, means, and ends of action (Kluckhohn, 1951, in Schlater & Sontag, 1994).
Sixteen values previously found to be of importance to people's evaluations of clothing were investigated in the study. They include comfort, beauty and attractiveness, level of living (being able to buy what you need), independence or freedom, creativity and expressiveness, fun, personal safety, acceptance and inclusion by others, self-accomplishment, fashionability, freedom from bother and annoyance, variety, self-regard, self-expression, economy, and masculinity or femininity. Adolescents responded to how they would feel about their clothing if they considered only a particular value on the Andrews and Withey (1976) Delighted-to-Terrible Scale, ranging from 1 = Terrible to 7 = Delighted. Three off-scale responses were possible: A = Neutral-neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, B = Never thought about it, and C = Does not apply to me. Off-scale responses permit people to acknowledge that a particular value is not relevant to them.
Clothing interest refers to "the attitudes and beliefs about clothing, the knowledge of and attention paid to clothing, the concern and curiosity a person has about his or her own clothing and that of others. This interest may be manifested by an individual's practices in regard to clothing itself-the amount of time, energy and money he/she is willing to spend on clothing; the degree to which he/she uses clothing in an experimental manner; and his/her awareness of fashion and what is new" (Gurel & Gurel, 1979, p. 275).
Two dimensions of clothing interest included in the present study were: (a) concern for personal appearance and (b) experimentation with appearance. Each dimension was measured by seven items on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Almost never to 5 = Almost always. In this report, the responses to the 14 items were summed and the mean computed for clothing interest as a single variable for each participant.
Anticipated outcomes are results or consequences related to adaptation that people desire to achieve through adequate clothing (Hwang, 1988).
In this study, outcomes are indicated by the rated importance of six ends achieved through the adolescent's use of clothing. The selected outcomes in this study were chosen to correspond with the six dimensions of proximity of clothing to self. Adolescents responded to six questions that asked: "How important is it to you that, through your clothing, you are able to: (a) achieve the image of who you are, (b) communicate who you are to other people, (c) influence other people's judgments of you, (d) gain a sense of personal competence, (e) make you feel good about yourself, and (f) make you think and feel good or better about your body." They responded using a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = No importance at all to 5 = Very high importance.
Domains of life are "places, things, activities, people, and roles " (Andrews & Withey, 1976, p. 11) that make up many areas of a person's life. People evaluate domains with respect to the values that they hold and are able to realize within various domains. Satisfaction with domains of life affect a person's perceived quality of life.
Nine domains were included in this study: house or apartment, neighborhood, clothing, friends, school life, family life, work done for pay, places for recreation and sports, and yourself. The Delighted-to-Terrible Scale described under values was also used to evaluate domains of life.
Clothing satisfaction is the extent to which an individual feels pleased and fulfilled with his or her clothing. The degree of satisfaction is in part a result of comparing a person's expectation for clothing with her or his actual clothing situation-for example, the quantity and quality of the person's clothing and the degree to which needs are met through clothing.
Clothing satisfaction was measured by constructing an index based on two measures: (a) affective evaluation of the clothing domain and (b) the self-anchoring ladder of satisfaction with clothing. The second measure presented a picture of a ladder with 10 rungs with instructions to: "Place an X on the ladder rung where you feel you personally stand at the present time" (in relation to the best/worst possible clothing for you) with 1 = Worst possible clothing and 10 = Best possible clothing. For data analysis, the 10-point scale was first transformed to a seven-point scale comparable to the first measure, and then the simple average of the two measures was computed.
Quality of life is defined as the extent to which basic needs are met and values realized. It is synonymous with well-being, from both objective and subjective standpoints, and can be assessed on the individual, family, and societal levels (Bubolz & Sontag, 1993).
Objective conditions contribute to well-being to the degree to which they provide positive and satisfying experiences and contribute to people's subjective or perceptual evaluations of their lives (Campbell, 1981). Perceived quality of life (PQOL) was measured by two items: (a) "How do you feel about your life as a whole?" assessed on the seven-point Delighted-to-Terrible Scale and (b) "Place an X on the ladder rung where you feel you personally stand at the present time" (in relation to the best/worst possible life for you) assessed on a 10-point self-anchoring ladder, ranging from 1 = Worst possible life to 10 = Best possible life, similar to that used for clothing satisfaction. After a suitable transformation of the 10-point scale to a seven-point scale, an index of PQOL was constructed by taking the simple average of the two responses.
Research Methods(3)
(3) The research methods and consent procedures for protection of the rights of human subjects were approved by the Michigan State University Committee on Research
Data Collection
The study (study 1) that forms the basis for this report was nested in a larger project in which another study (study 2) was conducted simultaneously. With the exception of the reliability analysis of the PCS Scale, this paper presents only the results from study 1, in which four Michigan high schools participated.
The four Michigan high schools were selected from inner-city, urban, suburban, and rural areas. Schools which, in total, were expected to give an ethnic representation comparable to the Michigan population of adolescents were selected from the Michigan Education Directory (1996) with the assistance of a faculty member with prior research experience with Michigan secondary schools. Moreover, all students from each class surveyed were invited to participate in the research to increase the representation of adolescents from 10th, 11th, and 12th grades. For schools that asked that ninth-grade students also be included in the study, this accommodation was made.
The study was conducted in May 1996. High school principals were initially contacted by letter with a follow-up phone call by the project director. If the principal gave written consent for his or her school's participation, the principal identified one or more cooperating teachers of social studies, life management or other required classes. The researchers contacted and then sent letters to the teacher(s) describing the project and parental/guardian consent forms for distribution in class for students to take to their parents and obtain their written consent. Students 18 and older could give their own written consent. The researchers also sent the teachers detailed written instructions for administering the survey to provide similar conditions across schools. Teachers also received a packet containing the number of questionnaires equal to the number of students in each participating class. The survey took place during class time in the school classrooms. Students were briefed on the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of their participation, and the confidentiality of data. Teachers administered the questionnaire to students who assented to participate.
From 565 questionnaires sent, 324 were returned. In most instances of non-participation, the questionnaires could not be completed because of lack of written parental consent or absenteeism on the day of data collection. Of the 324 questionnaires returned to the researchers, 47 were dropped because of the absence of an accompanying parental consent form,(4) and 10 were dropped because essential parts of the questionnaire were incomplete. Thus, 267 questionnaires were coded and edited.
(4) Forty-four of the 47 were from one inner-city school.
Treatment of Missing Data
For the items making up the index of clothing satisfaction and the index of perceived quality of life (PQOL), missing data were replaced with the overall mean-i.e., the sample mean across all cases for a given scale item making up the index. Cases were dropped when both scale items that formed the index had missing data. Therefore, five cases were dropped for the index of PQOL and seven cases for the index of clothing satisfaction.(5) For the dimensions of PCS and clothing interest, missing data within a given dimension were replaced with the mean of the participant's answers on other items in the dimension, provided that there were not more than two items with missing data for each PCS dimension or not more than one item with missing data for each dimension of clothing interest. In multiple regression analyses, listwise deletion of missing data was used; in correlational analyses, pairwise deletion of missing data was used.
(5) A few cases having unique combinations within the ordinary range of values generated extreme or unusual values out of the general pattern on a scattergram of residuals. Based on procedures for analysis and retention of outliers (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1995) most outliers were kept in the study, with the exception of one case which had systematically contradictory answers on items comprising a single dependent variable.
Data Analysis
Research participants' responses were analyzed for the hypothesized dimensions of proximity of clothing to self and for the other variables previously defined. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 6.1 was used for running the analyses on the computer. Research questions 1 and 3 were addressed by employing the independent-samples t-test procedure for analysis of gender differences. This method computes student's t statistic for testing the significance of a difference in means for independent samples (girls, boys). The observed significance level is the probability that a difference at least as large as the one observed would occur due to sampling error if the two population means (girls and boys) are equal. If p.05, the hypothesis that the population means are equal is rejected. Thus, we can say with at least 95 percent confidence that the two means are significantly different.(6)
(6) The assumption that all group variances are equal or that the samples come from normal populations was tested by Levene's test for equality of variance. If the significance level (p) for the Levene statistic is large, the pooled-variance t test is appropriate; if small, the separate-variance t test for means was used.
Age differences (research question 1) were analyzed for each PCS dimension using one-way analysis of variance. When a significant F value was obtained for the main effect of age, the Scheffa test for post hoc multiple comparisons was used to determine which age groups were significantly different from each other.(7)
(7) We chose to analyze differences by age rather than grade because we wanted to begin with the experience of a basic biological characteristic. Future analyses could assess whether the social climate of grade moderates the effect of age.
Research questions 2, 5, and 6 were assessed through univariate multiple regression.
We employed a sequential search approach to the regression procedure, using both the "backward" and "enter" methods. Backward elimination begins with all independent variables in the equation and subsequently removes them, based on a removal criterion. The independent variable that accounted for the least amount of variance in the dependent variable is eliminated first. The variables left in the regression equation in the last step of the backward method (the independent variables that most affect the dependent variable) were reintroduced in a subsequent regression analysis, this time with the enter method to verify that the significance of the predictors is maintained and to get a more accurate estimate of the goodness of fit measures. In this case, the variables are entered in a single step.
Research question 4 was addressed using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients. These relationships are important to the assessment of the construct validity of PCS measurement. Theory would suggest a positive correlation between PCS and clothing interest. In addition, each PCS dimension should relate positively and highest with its corresponding anticipated outcome. For example, clothing in relation to self as structure (PCS dimension 1) should correlate positively and to the greatest extent with its related anticipated outcome, achieve the image of who you are. The correlation of PCS dimension 1 with other anticipated outcomes should be lower.
Findings and Discussion
We begin with a description of the participants in the study and discuss the findings sequentially by research question.
Description of the Sample
The ethnic representation of the sample in the study roughly approximates the distribution of ethnicity of the Michigan population for ages 15 to 19 (Vis. T1).
Age and grade in school for the sample are given in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. The median age was 16, with a range from 15 years and under to 18 years and over Table 2. Grades 9 through 12 were represented, with the greatest number (approximately one-third) in the 11th grade Table 3. The sample consisted of 58.4 percent girls and 39.0 percent boys (Vis. 4).
Reliability of Measurement Scales and Indices
The reliabilities of the PCS Scale and clothing interest scale are high. The newly developed PCS Scale proved to be very sensitive. The reliabilities of the two indices (clothing satisfaction and perceived quality of life) are only moderately high, probably because they are each composed of only two items. Reliabilities as measured by Cronbach's alpha coefficient are given in Table 4. The reliability of any particular sample of measures depends entirely on the number of items and the average covariances among subjects' scores on the items if the scores on the items are not standardized, and on the average correlations if the subjects' scores are standardized. In the analysis, unstandardized and standardized alpha coefficients were almost identical, indicating that the items had comparable variances.
Research Question 1
The first research question was: "What is the relative proximity of the six dimensions of clothing to self by gender and age, and what differences, if any, exist by gender and age?"
Levels and differences in PCS by gender. Table 5 gives the means and standard deviations for each dimension for girls and boys and for the total sample.
The entire sample had the highest mean score on the clothing in relation to self-esteem-affective process dominant dimension (dimension 5) and the lowest mean score on clothing in relation to self as process- communication of self to others (dimension 2). For girls, dimension 5 was the most important PCS dimension, whereas for boys, clothing in relation to self as structure (dimension 1) was the most important PCS dimension. Thus, the girls tend primarily to incorporate clothing into the self to the extent that it makes them feel positive about themselves (self-love, self-acceptance, self-cathexis); whereas the boys tend to incorporate clothing into the self to the extent that it helps them achieve the image of who they are.
Girls scored significantly higher than boys on PCS dimensions 4, 5, and 6. The largest gender difference was on the clothing in relation to body image and body cathexis dimension (dimension 6), on which girls on average scored almost one point ahead of boys on the six-point scale. These results suggest that girls tend to rely on clothing to a greater extent than boys to enhance their self-esteem, give them a feeling of self-acceptance, and help them cope with a changing body. Boys scored numerically higher on average than girls on the clothing in relation to self as process-communication of self to others dimension (dimension 2), but the difference was small and not significant. These results differ somewhat from those obtained by Schmerbauch (1993), who investigated gender differences in PCS among ninth and 12th grade adolescents. Using another version of a PCS scale that she developed using methods different from ours, she found that girls scored significantly higher than boys on all six PCS dimensions. This difference in results between studies may be explained by differences in sampling, scale items included, or modifications in conceptualization of dimensions.
Levels and differences in PCS by age. Tables 6 and 7 present the age group means of the mean scores for each PCS dimension for girls and boys, respectively. These data are also depicted graphically in (Vis. 5) and (Vis. 6).
For girls, the pattern of data shows that the highest score on each dimension of the PCS Scale occurs within the youngest age group (15 and under). Following that, proximity of clothing to self declines through age 17 and begins to rise again for those 18 and over, but it does not reach the initial level at age 15 and under. This suggests that girls may incorporate clothing with the self to a greater extent when they are making major life transitions, as when they enter high school (age 15 and under) or prepare to leave high school for higher education or a job (age 18 and over). Between these two periods, they have increasingly adapted to their present environment; thus, clothing may become somewhat less important to the self during this time (ages 16 and 17).
The renewed importance of clothing to the self in the final year of high school may represent a prelude to entering adult life. Further research is needed to confirm this explanation; other explanations may also be feasible. The data for girls also show that, within each age group, each dimension holds the same relative position. For example, clothing in relation to self-esteem-affective process dominant (dimension 5) has the highest mean PCS score within each age group. The decreasing order of the other dimensions for each age group is: clothing in relation to body image and body cathexis (dimension 6); clothing in relation to self-esteem-evaluative process dominant (dimension 4); clothing in relation to self as structure (dimension 1); clothing in relation to self as process-response to judgments of others (dimension 3); and lastly, clothing in relation to self as process- communication of self to others (dimension 2).
This pattern, clearly visible in (Vis. 5), suggests the stability of the relative importance of the PCS dimensions for girls across the age groups in this study.
The data for boys present a different and more complex pattern by age. In contrast to the girls, the boys scored highest on five of the six PCS dimensions (dimensions 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6) at the age of 18 and over. Like the girls, the boys' mean PCS scores on each dimension were lowest at age 17 (Table 7). In addition, there is some crossover of dimensions in relation to each other as age changes, indicating that different dimensions take on greater or lesser significance relative to each other for boys in different age groups (Vis. 6). Specifically, boys' mean PCS scores are somewhat higher on dimensions 1, 4, 5, and 6 at age 16 than at age 15 and under. This may mean that as boys adapt to high school, they begin to recognize at a somewhat later age than girls the importance of clothing to the identity, self-esteem, and body image and body cathexis. This may in some way reflect a difference between genders in ego development (Cohn, 1991).
To determine if the means of the PCS mean scores were significantly different from each other among the four age groups, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted for each dimension separately, and for boys and girls separately. The ANOVA results by age groups for girls are presented in Table 8 and for boys in Table 9.
For girls, a significant difference between age groups was found only for dimension 1, clothing in relation to self as structure (p = .044). Results approached but did not reach the significance level for dimension 2, clothing in relation to self as process-communication of self to others (p = .059). Scheffe post hoc comparisons revealed that the PCS mean scores on dimension 1 for girls 15 and under (c 15 & under = 3.84) were significantly greater than the PCS scores for 17-year-old girls (c 17 = 3.36), confirming the trend noted in (Vis. 5). Thus, we can say with some confidence that younger girls (15 and under) who enter high school perceive clothing as closer to the self with respect to viewing the self as an organized picture existing in their awareness than girls at age 17. Other differences were not significant.
For boys, a significant difference between age groups was found only for dimension 3, clothing in relation to self as process-response to judgments of others, (see Table 9). Scheffe post hoc comparisons indicate that the PCS mean scores on dimension 3 for boys 15 and under (c 15 & under = 3.67) were significantly greater than the PCS mean scores for 17-year-old boys (c 17 = 2.91), confirming the trend graphically depicted in (Vis. 6). (8)
(8) Schmerbauch (1993) made contrasts by two grade levels (ninth and 12th). Generally, scores were somewhat higher in the ninth grade than in the 12th grade, with significant differences on only one dimension for girls and on two dimensions for boys.
What can we conclude from these results? Statistically, PCS across most dimensions is fairly stable. Although the numerical data and graphs show some variation across age groups, differences are significant for only one dimension, and the nature of this dimension varies by gender. The trend toward decreasing PCS mean scores from age 15 and under for girls to age 17 suggests that they enter high school in anticipation of a major transition, and for girls the major change that takes place over time is in the way they view clothing as representing a consistent, organized picture or expression of the self. That is, clothing becomes less important in assisting them in being (or becoming) who they are. Boys at age 15 and under also appear to anticipate a transition in life. This takes expression in the recognition that clothing affects the judgments of the self by others as they enter high school. For both boys and girls, age 17 appears to be a period in which they depend least on clothing to function in support of the self.
The project research team gratefully acknowledges the assistance of the participating high school principals and cooperating teachers for facilitating the data collection process. Sincere appreciation is also extended to Dr. Margaret Bubolz, Dr. Robert Griffore, and Ms. Joanne Schultink, who reviewed a draft of the manuscript and made many helpful, insightful suggestions to improve this report. This research was supported and funded by the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station as project No. 3326.
Acknowledgments
(Vis 1). A human ecosystem from the perspective of an individual person.
(Vis. 2). The ecological self: Dynamics of individual-environment interaction within a human ecosystem.
(Vis. 3). Measurement model used in this study.
Involving Human Subjects.
Figure 4. Gender of the participants. (Vis. 4)
Boys 39%
Girls 58.4%
Missing data 2.6%
Table 1. Comparison of ethnicity of Michigan's population with sample in this study. (Vis. T1)
a From Michigan Statistical Abstract (1996).
b From Statistical abstract of the United States: 1996 (Bureau of the Census, 1996).
c From 1990 Census community profiles for southeast Michigan: Detailed social, economic and housing characteristics (Bureau of the Census, 1990).
d Age of the sample ranged from 15 & under through 18 & over (see Table 2).
Table 2. Distribution of the participants by age.
Age Girls Boys Missing data Total
N % N % N % N %
15 &
under 49 31.4 24 23.1 - - 73 27.3
16 38 24.4 26 25.0 1 0.4 65 24.3
17 41 26.3 36 34.6 - - 77 28.8
18 &
over 28 17.9 18 17.3 - - 46 17.2
Missing
data - - - - 6 2.2 6 2.2
TOTAL 156 100.0 104 100.0 7 2.6 267 99.8a
a Percent does not total 100 because of rounding.
Table 3. Distribution of the participants by grade in school
Grade Girls Boys Missing data Total
N % N % N % N %
9th 36 23.1 15 14.4 - - 51 19.1
10th 33 21.2 26 25.0 - - 59 22.1
11th 53 34.0 37 35.6 1 0.4 91 34.1
12th 34 21.8 26 25.0 - - 60 22.5
Missing
data - - - - 6 2.2 6 2.2
TOTAL 156 100.1a 104 100.0 7 2.6 267 100.0
a Percent does not total 100 because of rounding.
Table 4. Reliability of the scales.
Scale Cronbach's alpha Sample size (a) Clothing interest .91 249 PCS dimension 1 .83 438 PCS dimension 2 .82 439 PCS dimension 3 .84 438 PCS dimension 4 .87 438 PCS dimension 5 .83 439 PCS dimension 6 .88 436 Index of clothing satisfaction .64 267 Index of perceived quality of life .68 267
(a) The sample size for determining reliabilities of the PCS dimensions is based on the combined samples for study 1 and study 2.
Table 5. Aggregate means of six dimensions of proximity of clothing to self by gender.
Girls Boys Total sample
PCS N = 155 N = 103 T-test N = 265a
Mean SD Mean SD Difference 2-tail Mean SD
in means Sig.
Dim. 1 3.61 .79 3.49 .86 .12 .262 3.57 .83
Dim. 2 3.15 .73 3.21 .88 -.06 .536 3.16 .80
Dim. 3 3.46 .93 3.30 .95 .16 .181 3.38 .93
Dim. 4 3.76 .83 3.39 1.00 .37 .001 3.61 .92
Dim. 5 4.07 .71 3.44 .85 .63 .000 3.82 .83
Dim. 6 3.90 .87 2.91 .96 .99 .000 3.50 1.03
a) Seven cases had missing data on gender. Additionally, two cases were dropped because of a response set on PCS, that is, a tendency to reply to most items of the PCS scale using the same response scale values.
Table 6. Aggregate means of six dimensions of proximity of clothing to self by age-Girls.a
Age 15 & under 16 17 18 & over
(N= 49) (N = 38) (N = 40) (N = 28)
Dimension 1 3.84 3.61 3.36 3.56
Dimension 2 3.36 3.10 2.95 3.12
Dimension 3 3.67 3.40 3.29 3.40
Dimension 4 3.90 3.70 3.66 3.72
Dimension 5 4.27 3.99 3.94 4.00
Dimension 6 4.04 3.83 3.78 3.94
a) From a total of 156 cases, one was dropped because of a response set on PCS, that is, a tendency to reply to most items of the PCS scale using the same response scale values.
Table 7. Aggregate means of six dimensions of proximity of clothing to self by age-Boys.a
Age 15 & under 16 17 18 & over
(N= 24) (N = 25) (N = 36) (N = 18)
Dimension 1 3.50 3.52 3.38 3.66
Dimension 2 3.26 3.18 3.13 3.35
Dimension 3 3.67 3.25 2.91 3.64
Dimension 4 3.46 3.54 3.10 3.66
Dimension 5 3.48 3.59 3.23 3.62
Dimension 6 2.87 3.04 2.68 3.24
a) From a total of 104 cases, one was dropped because of a response set on PCS, that is, a tendency to reply to most items of the PCS scale using the same response scale values.
Figure 5. Proximity of clothing to self for each of six dimensions by age-Girls. (Vis. 5)
Table 8. Results of one-way ANOVA for each dimension of proximity of clothing to self (using mean scores) among four age groups-Girls.
PCS dimension and Sum of Mean source of variation df squares squares F PCS dimension 1 Between age groups 3 5.02 1.67 2.76* Within age groups 151 91.40 .61 Total 154 96.42
PCS dimension 2 Between age groups 3 3.95 1.32 2.53a Within age groups 151 78.56 .52 Total 154 82.51
PCS dimension 3 Between age groups 3 3.60 1.20 1.41 Within age groups 151 128.97 .85 Total 154 132.57
PCS dimension 4 Between age groups 3 1.50 .50 .72 Within age groups 151 104.33 .69 Total 154 105.83
PCS dimension 5 Between age groups 3 3.05 1.02 2.08 Within age groups 151 74.00 .49 Total 154 77.06
PCS dimension 6 Between age groups 3 1.75 .58 .77 Within age groups 151 114.53 .76 Total 154 116.28
*) .05, p = .044 a) Tendency to approach significance (p = .059).
(Vis. 6). Proximity of clothing to self for each of six dimensions by age-Boys.
Table 10. Multiple regression analyses of the prediction
of proximity of clothing to self by values related to
clothing ("enter" method).a
95% confidence Ad-
PCS Values / B / SE B/interval of B /Beta/Sig.T/just-
related ed
to clothing R2
Dimension 1
Masculinity/
femininity 1.585 .617 .368 2.802 .202 .011 .086
Creativity/
expressiveness 1.263 .593 .093 2.433 .167 .035
Dimension 2
Acceptance & 1.579 .516 .561 2.598 .236 .003 .084
inclusion by
others
Creativity/ 1.111 .565 -.005 2.226 .151 .051
expressiveness
Dimension 3 Independence or freedom -2.245 .829 -3.882 -.607 -.252 .008 .058 Acceptance & 1.848 .660 .544 3.152 .225 .006 inclusion by others
Dimension 4 Masculinity/ femininity 2.438 .827 .802 4.073 .271 .004 .136
Dimension 5 Masculinity/ femininity 2.033 .618 .811 3.254 .256 .001 .093 Personal safety 1.002 .527 -.038 2.043 .148 .059b
Dimension 6 Masculinity/ femininity 1.621 .926 -.208 3.450 .163 .082b.008
a The sample N ranged from 145 to 177 for each regression based on listwise deletion of missing data.
b Tendency to approach significance.
Table 9. Results of one-way ANOVA for each dimension of proximity of clothing to self (using mean scores) among four age groups-Boys.
PCS dimension and Sum of Mean source of variation df squares squares F
PCS dimension 1 Between age groups 3 .94 .31 .42 Within age groups 99 74.09 .75 Total 102 75.02
PCS dimension 2 Between age groups 3 .72 .24 .30 Within age groups 99 78.94 .80 Total 102 79.66
PCS dimension 3 Between age groups 3 10.91 3.64 4.41* Within age groups 99 81.62 .82 Total 102 92.54
PCS dimension 4 Between age groups 3 5.09 1.70 1.73 Within age groups 99 97.30 .98 Total 102 102.39
PCS dimension 5 Between age groups 3 2.87 .96 1.33 Within age groups 99 71.06 .72 Total 102 73.94
PCS dimension 6 Between age groups 3 4.28 1.43 1.58 Within age groups 99 89.10 .90 Total 102 93.37
* .05, p = .006
Research Question 2
The second question was: "Which value criteria related to clothing are most predictive of proximity of clothing to self?" The statistical data from six multiple regression analyses (one for each PCS dimension) are given in Table 10. The human values remaining in the regression models are those that were significant predictors in the "backward" method of sequential regression and that were reintroduced in one step using the "enter" method as described previously.
B is the unstandardized regression coefficient (slope). It is the change in the mean of the dependent variable (PCS dimension) for a unit change in the independent variable (a value) when all the other variables are held constant. Since all of the independent variables in the regression model were measured on the same scale, the unstandardized regression coefficient is appropriate. For additional interpretation of this table and the other regression tables, see "Statistical Notes" at the end of the report.
The highest value for B occurred when clothing in relation to self-esteem-evaluative process dominant (dimension 4) was regressed on the masculinity/femininity value (B = 2.438). Roughly 14 percent of the variation in PCS dimension 4 was explained by this single value, which makes it a good predictor of this dimension. Indeed, masculinity/femininity was involved as a predictor in four out of six PCS dimensions. The two exceptions were on clothing in relation to self as process (dimensions 2 and 3). Thus, being able to realize or express their gender orientation was the value most predictive of the extent to which they were psychologically close to clothing in relation to dimensions 1, 4, 5, and 6-i.e., clothing in relation to self as structure, self-esteem (both evaluative and affective processes), and body image/body cathexis.
The more positive that adolescents felt about their clothing with respect to their ability to express their masculinity/femininity and creativity/expressiveness in clothing, the higher their score on clothing in relation to self as structure (dimension 1). This suggests that, for clothing to reflect the image adolescents have of themselves, they must be able to be creative in their use of clothing and reflect their gender orientation. Also, the more positive they felt about clothing's effect on acceptance and inclusion by others and their ability to express their creativity/expressiveness through clothing, the higher was their concern with clothing in relation to self as process-communication of self to others (dimension 2).
An interesting result was obtained on dimension 3, clothing in relation to self as process-response to judgments of others; the less positive the adolescent felt about the independence or freedom that she/he had to wear what she/he wants and the more positively she/he evaluated the effect of clothing on her/his acceptance and inclusion by other people, the more the adolescent was likely to be concerned with her/his clothing in relation to the developing self, particularly in respect to the judgments of others. These two values sensitize adolescents to be concerned with how others make judgments about them on the basis of their clothing.
In addition to masculinity/femininity, another value that approached significance in predicting clothing in relation to self-esteem-affective process dominant was personal safety. That is, adolescents who feel safe in their clothing tend to relate to clothing in terms of the way clothing makes them feel about themselves (i.e., self-love, self-acceptance, self-cathexis). Given the increasing violence in the schools, sometimes due to conflicts over clothing items, this is an interesting finding and one that merits further exploration. Thus, of the 16 values measured, five were important in predicting the proximity of clothing to self: masculinity/femininity, independence or freedom, acceptance and inclusion by others, creativity/expressiveness, and personal safety (Vis. 7).
This constellation of values realized through clothing is important to the incorporation of clothing in the adolescent self-system. This helps explain why controversies over dress in the schools are frequently centered around issues related to identity, freedom, self-expression, and safety.
(Vis. 7). Values predictive of dimensions of adolescents' proximity of clothing to self.
Table 11. Two independent samples t-test for mean of clothing interest by gender.
Gender Number of cases Mean SDa Difference
in means
Girls 154 3.13 .74
.84**
Boys 98 2.29 .84
**) p = .000
a) SD means standard deviation.
Table 12. Pearson correlations of PCS dimensions with clothing interest.
PCS Clothing interest
Girls Boys Total sample
Dimension 1 .40 .38 .36
Dimension 2 .38 .43 .33
Dimension 3 .25 .38 .31
Dimension 4 .53 .52 .54
Dimension 5 .46 .55 .57
Dimension 6 .33 .44 .51
Table 13. Pearson correlations of PCS dimensions with clothing outcomes.
PCS Out- 1 Out- 2 Out- 3 Out- 4 Out- 5 Out- 6
come come come come come come
Dim. 1 .47 .48 .32 .46 .53 .44
Dim. 2 .50 .52 .44 .45 .42 .34
Dim. 3 .29 .27 .54 .35 .29 .34
Dim. 4 .43 .45 .44 .54 .62 .58
Dim. 5 .35 .39 .36 .45 .57 .60
Dim. 6 .22 .28 .25 .26 .44 .60
Table 14. Multiple regression analysis of the prediction
of the index of clothing satisfaction by anticipated
outcomes ("enter" method, N = 257).
Anticipated
outcomes B SE B 95% confidence Beta Sig. T
interval of B
Gain a sense of personal
competence .149 .067 .017 .281 .160 .027
Achieve image of
who you are .143 .072 .002 .285 .144 .048
Multiple R = .268 R2 = .072 Adjusted R2 = .064
Table 15. Multiple regression analysis of the prediction
of the index of perceived quality of life by domains of
life ("enter" method, N = 230).
Domains of life B SE B 95% confidence Beta Sig. T
interval of B
Yourself .446 .038 .372 .520 .531 .000
Family life .282 .033 .216 .347 .358 .000
Neighborhood .126 .035 .058 .194 .152 .000
Friends .086 .037 .012 .159 .099 .023
Multiple R = .792 R2 = .628 Adjusted R2 = .621
Research Question 3
Research question 3 was: "What is the level of clothing interest among adolescents by gender?" The means, standard deviations, and difference in means between girls and boys and t-test results are presented in Table 11. (9)
(9) Because Levene's test for equality of variances was small (p .05), the hypothesis that the population variances are equal was rejected, so the separate-variance t test for means was used.
The t-test for differences between means shows a substantial difference in clothing interest by gender (difference = .84). Girls manifested a higher interest in clothing than boys. This result is consistent with findings from studies of college women and men (Gurel, 1974; Kwon, 1994).
Research Question 4
The fourth research question was: "What is the relationship between PCS and clothing interest, and between PCS and clothing outcomes?"
The correlation of each of the six PCS dimensions with clothing interest for girls, boys, and the total sample are presented in Table 12. Each PCS dimension correlated positively and moderately to moderately high with clothing interest. This is the direction to be expected in theory and helps to establish the construct validity of the PCS Scale. As the psychological proximity of clothing to self increases, clothing interest increases, or vice versa. It is of interest that boys had a somewhat higher correlation between four PCS dimensions and clothing interest than girls. However, as reported previously, the mean scores for boys on the PCS dimensions were generally lower than those for girls. This suggests that it may take higher proximity of clothing to self for boys to take an interest in clothing, whereas girls may have developed clothing interest through the socialization process that is less tied to psychological proximity.
The highest correlations for both girls and boys occurred between dimension 4 (clothing in relation to self-esteem-evaluative process dominant) and clothing interest, and dimension 5 (clothing in relation to self-esteem-affective process dominant) and clothing interest. Thus, as clothing becomes important to an adolescent in building and maintaining self-esteem and feeling good about the self, both boys and girls take a heightened interest in clothing.
The correlation of PCS dimensions with clothing outcomes also was an attempt to begin to evaluate the construct validity of the PCS scale. Each outcome was selected to relate closely to one PCS dimension. For example, outcome 1 was assessed by asking: "How important is it to you that, through your clothing, you are able to achieve the image of who you are?" PCS dimension 1, clothing in relation to self as structure, should correlate most highly with outcome 1 and less highly with the other outcomes. Each numbered dimension should correlate most highly with the outcome having the same number and somewhat lower with the other outcomes. The actual correlations obtained between PCS dimensions and clothing outcomes are presented in Table 13.
All correlations were positive and moderate to moderately high. Dimensions 2, 3, and 6 correlated most highly with their corresponding outcomes. Dimension 5 of the PCS scale had the second highest correlation with its corresponding outcome, and dimensions 1 and 4 had the third highest correlation with their corresponding outcomes. Thus, based on this analysis and that reported for clothing interest, some evidence for the construct validity of the PCS Scale exists. However, three of the dimensions (1, 4, and 5) need further examination and refinement.
Research Question 5
The fifth question was: "Which anticipated outcomes related to clothing are most predictive of clothing satisfaction?" Using the definitions of statistical terms in "Statistical Notes," the results are given in Table 14. A probability of .05 associated with the t-value supports the hypothesis that a linear association exists between clothing satisfaction and two anticipated outcomes. The clothing satisfaction of adolescents will increase with an increase in perceived importance of gaining a sense of personal competence and achieving the image of who they are through clothing. However, adjusted R2 was small (.06), which means that only 6 percent of the variation in clothing satisfaction was explained by these two outcomes, indicating that other factors not measured also contribute to clothing satisfaction.
The mean of the index of clothing satisfaction for the sample was 5.30 on a seven-point scale. Students seemed to be slightly more satisfied with their clothes than with their quality of life, as seen below.
Research Question 6
The sixth research question was: "What domains of life are important to the perceived quality of life (PQOL) of adolescents?" The index of PQOL was initially regressed on nine domains: house/apartment, neighborhood, clothing, friends, school life, family life, work done for pay, place for recreation/sports, and yourself. Five variables were eliminated with the "backward" method, "clothing" being removed in the last step. Four domains of life were significant predictors of adolescents' PQOL. They were (in descending order of their importance): "yourself," "family life," "neighborhood," and "friends" (Table 15). We note that of all the domains, affective evaluation of self was most highly correlated with affective evaluation of the clothing domain (rP = .60). Therefore, there is a situation of moderately high collinearity between these two independent variables (i.e., self and clothing). The consequence of this is that there may be some shared variance between clothing and the self in predicting PQOL. This would diminish the unique variance explained by each of these two independent variables (Hair et al., 1995). Thus, feelings about clothing may be part of feelings about self and subsequently be indirectly predictive of PQOL.
The mean of the whole sample on the index of perceived quality of life was 5.06 on a seven-point scale. The four domains in the regression equation explained 62 percent of the variance in PQOL. Feeling good about self, family life, neighborhood, and friends will increase the likelihood of a higher quality of life for the adolescents in this study. Feelings about clothing did not contribute significantly, as we expected they might, to adolescents' quality of life, perhaps for reasons discussed above.
These findings support those of Dew and Huebner (1994), who showed that higher life satisfaction was associated with a positive general self-concept among adolescents. They also found that the parent-relations domain of self-concept was more positively associated with life satisfaction than was the peer-relations domain of self-concept.
Summary and Implications
This research program is centered on understanding the relation of an important material resource environment, clothing, to the self-system of adolescents. We found that there is a significant gender difference on three dimensions of proximity of clothing to self among the adolescents. Girls incorporated clothing to a greater extent than did boys in their self-system with respect to the evaluative and affective processes of self-esteem and body image and body cathexis. Boys related to clothing most dominantly in relation to their identity, whereas girls related most dominantly to clothing in terms of its effect on self-feelings.
Contrasts by age groups suggest that girls 15 and under had higher proximity of clothing to self than 17-year-olds in terms of clothing in relation to self as structure. This suggests that scores on PCS dimension 1 may be an important marker of the importance of clothing to the adaptation process for the adolescent girl. Boys 15 and under had PCS scores higher than boys at age 17 on clothing in relation to self as process-response to judgments of others. Therefore, PCS dimension 3 may be an important marker in the adaptation process for adolescent boys. Results point to the importance of studying the proximity of clothing to self in major ecological transitions-i.e., changes that the individual makes in geographic space and time.
Boys for whom clothing was proximal to the self (i.e., those having higher PCS scores than other boys) were more interested in clothing than girls with high PCS scores on four of the six PCS dimensions. This suggests that the common belief that boys have low clothing interest may be false. Rather, a subgroup of boys for whom clothing is important to the self have a stronger interest in clothing than other boys for whom clothing is less functional for the self. Results also suggest that girls and boys will be more interested in clothing when clothing helps them think positively and feel positive about themselves.
Certain values that adolescents realize through clothing that affect the extent to which they incorporate clothing into their self-system include: masculinity or femininity, independence or freedom, acceptance and inclusion by others, creativity and expressiveness, and personal safety. It appears that clothing provides an important vehicle for meeting basic needs of being and relating (Allardt, 1976).
Adolescents' satisfaction with clothing appears from this study to be dependent on two outcomes related to incorporating clothing with the self-that is, the extent to which clothing gives them a sense of personal competence and their ability to achieve the image of who they are through their clothing. Other factors not measured in this study may also account for clothing satisfaction-e.g., the quantity and quality of clothing they have for particular activities. But it is not surprising that, during a time when adolescents are experimenting with various identities and growing in personal competence, these two expectations about clothing affect their satisfaction with their clothing.
Finally, we found that, of the domains explored in this study, adolescents' perceived quality of life appears to be most influenced by their affective evaluations of the self, their family, their neighborhood, and their friends. Strengthening these domains of adolescent life should have the effect of increasing their quality of life.
What implications do these findings have for schools and other groups and agencies? First, instructors of life management or other appropriate classes may wish to include learning strategies that help adolescents understand how clothing may serve multiple positive functions for the developing self. Because of differential socialization of girls and boys and the nature of life experiences that adolescents have encountered, these functions differ by gender as well as between individuals of the same gender. Understanding these differences could help adolescents and parents become more tolerant of diverse patterns of dressing.
Secondly, findings also suggest that instructors, youth group leaders, parents, and peers may help an adolescent become more satisfied with clothing by helping the adolescent select and acquire clothing that will fit his or her image of self and build a sense of personal competence. Parent and teacher associations could request that clothing professionals conduct educational programs for parents and teachers on how clothing functions for healthy self-concept and self-esteem.
Third, administrators responsible for setting policies related to dress codes or school uniforms would be prudent to take into account the possibility for adolescents to realize important values within the allowable forms of dress. For example, how much creativity and ability to express masculinity or femininity may be retained by permitting some variety in and options for selecting or personalizing uniforms or other elements of allowable dress? Can required school uniforms function in support of the self in the same way as individually chosen clothing? Future research, building on the results reported here, should address this question through an experimental research design. Finally, because affective evaluation of self was the most important predictor of adolescents' perceived quality of life, identifying and enriching environments that support the development of a positive self-concept and high self-esteem are important for parents, adolescents, schools, and other organizations. Schools and other groups concerned with youth development can also support programs aimed at strengthening family life, improving neighborhoods, and helping young people form healthy friendships.
Statistical Notes
SE B is the standard error for the estimate (or standard deviation of the residuals) of the slope and intercept. Beta is the standardized regression coefficient, which makes possible a direct comparison between all independent variables when they are measured in different units. Confidence interval is the range of values that, within a designated likelihood, includes the population value for the unstandardized regression coefficient.
Sig. T is the observed significance level of the t-statistic.
Goodness of fit, or how well the model actually fits the population, is measured by the coefficient of determination, R2 (0 R2 1). R2 is also the proportion of the variation in the dependent variable "explained" by the model.
Adjusted R2 attempts to correct R2 (which is an optimistic estimate). The model usually does not fit the population as well as it fits the sample from which it is derived. Therefore, adjusted R2 reflects a more realistic goodness of fit of the model in the population because its formula is a function of sample size and number of independent variables in the equation.
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