Vineyard Establishment II Planting and Early Care of

Michigan State University Extension
MSU Extension Fruit Bulletins - 26459701
11/30/99

Vineyard Establishment II Planting and Early Care of Vineyards

List of files and visuals associated with this text.

Extension Bulletin E-2645
New December 1997

Thomas J. Zabadal
Department of Horticulture

Michigan State University Extension

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments

Introduction

I. Preplanting Activities
Preparing the Soil for Planting
Marking the Field

II. Planting Vines
Preparing and Handling Vines
Planting Techniques

III. Steps Immediately After Planting
Hilling Soil Around Vines
Controlling Weeds
Supplemental Weed Control
Fertilizing
Irrigating
Trellis/Staking
Using Grow Tubes

IV. Year I Vine Management
Adjusting the Number of Shoots Per Vine
Defruiting
Controlling Pests
Managing Shoot Growth
Managing Row Middles
Controlling Weeds Around Vines

V. Engineering A Modern Trellis
Types of Posts
Quantities of Posts Required per Acre of Vineyard
Installing Line Posts
Installing End Posts
Wire Characteristics of Importance for Use in
Vineyard Trellises
Amount of Wire Required
Installing Wires
Tools and Gadgets for installing Trellis Wires

VI. Year 2 Vine Management
Early-season Weed Control
Replanting
Year 2 Vine Management
Tying Grapevines
Preemergence Weed Control
Fertilizing with Nitrogen
Adjusting Shoot Number per Vine, Suckering and
Defruiting
Controlling Pests
Managing the Canopy
Managing Row Middles

VII. Year 3 Vine Management
Training
Pruning
Controlling Weeds
Fertilizing with Nitrogen
Controlling Pests
Controlling Crop
Harvesting

VIII. Summary

References

Cover Photo: A Cabernet franc vineyard in its third
growing season near Benton Harbor, Michigan. Vines
produced a yield of approximately 2 tons per acre after
being thinned to allow the development of vine size.
(Vis. C)

Acknowledgments

Thanks to Michigan State University Extension, the
Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station,
the National Grape Cooperative, and the Michigan Grape and
Wine Industry Council for supporting projects reported in
this manuscript. Thanks also to the Michigan Grape and
Wine industry Council for direct financial support to
publish this manuscript. The Southwest Michigan Research
and Extension Center field staff - including Jim Ertman,
Jerry Grajauskis, Tom Dittmer, Gaylord Brunke and Fred
Froehlich - provided direct logistical support for many
activities reported here. Dr. Will Carlson and Dr. Jim
Flore provided guidance on the development of this
manuscript. Many helpful comments on the final draft of
this manuscript were provided by Dr. Bruce Bordelon, Dr.
G. Stanley Howell, Robert Blum, Michael Nitz and Dr. Allen
Zencka. Special thanks to the numerous growers in
Michigan, New York and other areas who have so freely
shared their viticultural ingenuity over the past quarter-
century. Much of the information presented on these pages
is a recording of their collective creativity in vineyard
management. Diane Dings has been a major contributor to
this manuscript through graphics preparation, numerous
draft revisions and many helpful suggestions throughout
the process.

Introduction

The establishment of a productive vineyard is hard work.
Too often those who undertake this enterprise do not
understand the amount of effort and the need for timely
performance of the many tasks required to bring a vineyard
into full productive capacity. Frequently, vines are
hurriedly planted without adequate preplanting and
postplanting care with the expectation that, if one can
just get the process started, eventually a beautiful,
highly productive vineyard will result. Unfortunately, a
poor start can doom a vineyard to mediocrity for a long
period - perhaps forever. Therefore, careful planning and
timely application of each step in the process of vineyard
establishment are important not only to hasten the onset
of vineyard productivity but also to ensure its longterm
productivity. The information presented here will assist
those undertaking what can be a highly economically and
personally rewarding experience the establishment of a
vineyard.

I. Preplanting Activities

Preparing the Soil for Planting

Most vineyards are planted after the soil has been tilled
completely to provide a loose, workable planting bed for
the vines. Plowing, disking, dragging, floating, etc., to
prepare a field for planting requires more skill than one
might imagine. Laying out the plow patterns to avoid dead
furrows in the middle of the field, adjusting the plow so
it rolls over the soil properly, cross-disking and
dragging to ensure level soils, etc., require planning and
skill. Seek counsel from local field crop experts on
tillage operations when necessary. Heavy sods, excessively
wet soils, excessive growth of cover crops before plowing,
etc., can complicate the process. The soil should be not
only level but also loose and workable to a depth of 8 to
9 inches so a planter can be readily pulled through the
soil to open a furrow for setting the vines. This furrow
is typically 12 to 15 inches deep, but some planters can
open a trench as much as 24 inches deep. Most soils
require only typical surface tillage operations to prepare
them for vine planting. Some soils, however, have
compacted layers of subsoil, which form either naturally,
in the case of a pan soil such as a hardpan or fragipan
soil, or through physical compaction by equipment. Because
these layers can restrict vine root development, breaking
up these layers, either by subsoiling or (less often)
through deep plowing, can significantly improve vine size
development.

Moldboard plowing works well on fields that have been
managed uniformly without woody vegetation, such as those
with a field crops history. Many growers prefer chisel
plowing on old orchard or vineyard sites. Heavy sods may
be killed with a herbicide treatment the previous fall and
then roughplowed so freeze/thaw cycles help break up large
clods.

If the field to be planted has considerable slope and the
soils are light enough to be erodible, then complete
tillage of the vineyard site may be hazardous. In recent
years, a number of vineyards with these characteristics
have been planted by first rotovating strips of soil into
which vines are then planted. Rotovation should be
performed as deeply as possible. Placing small marker
stakes at the ends of vine rows and at intermediate places
in the field will provide a guide for the tractor.

Marking the Field

Marking a field for planting a vineyard is perhaps like
brushing teeth - no two people do it exactly the same.
Though numerous variations on this step in vineyard
establishment are possible, the following guidelines will
help focus one's creativity for this task.

The most common situation is a field that has been
completely tilled and sufficiently leveled so that 3- to
4-inch deep grooves in the soil will be readily visible. A
grid pattern of grooves is made in the soil (Vis. 1) and
then vines are planted at the intersections on this grid.
The marking tools used to make this grid are often
fabricated on the farm (Vis. 2) and vary considerably from
farm to farm. A common method will be described first and
then comment will be made on variations.

(Vis. 1) Vertical grooves in the soil mark the spacing of
rows. Less distinct horizontal grooves mark the vine
spacing. This planting was on the Jim and Dan Nitz farm on
an April morning near Baroda, Mich.

(Vis. 2) This trailer field marker for planting grapevines
on the Kerlikowske farm in Michigan uses two cultivating
teeth to make grooves in the soil. Meanwhile a
hydraulically extended disk marks the location for the
next pass of the tractor. (Kerlikowske Farm, Berrien
Springs, Mich.)

The marker is typically a tool bar behind the tractor,
either on a 3-point hitch or trailered, on which
cultivating teeth are spaced to make grooves in the soil.
Three teeth often are used - one in the middle of the
tractor and one movable tooth on each side. Begin by
placing several stakes along what will be the second row
of the vineyard (Vis. 3)A. Then set intermediate stakes as
needed, either by stretching a wire between end stakes or
sighting between end stakes with binoculars to align a 6-
foot pole held by one of the crew. Stakes in this row
should be about 3 feet tall so the tractor driver can
readily sight along them. Lath strips work well. They
should be lightly staked in the soil so the tractor can
easily push them over during marking. With the marking
tool set so the distance between the cultivating teeth is
at the desired row spacing, drive down the field along
this set of stakes to make the first three rows (Vis. 3)A.
The third row marked with this first pass then becomes the
guide for an outside tooth on the marker for first pass.
This is repeated across the entire field (Vis. 3)A. If the
marker is stabilized so there is no side-to-side movement,
then marking can be performed in both directions. However,
even a 2-inch shift on a side slope will make every other
row 4 inches too wide or too narrow. Therefore, on small
plantings it may be best to take the extra time to mark
all rows in the same direction. on large plantings, mark
rows on one side of the field in one direction and those
on the other side in the opposite direction. This will
limit row width variation to possibly one row middle in
the center of the field.

(Vis. 3) Steps in planting vines include (A) marking rows,
(B) marking vine spaces and (C) planting vines.

The next step is to mark vine spaces. Begin by setting
stakes in the second vine space from one end of the
vineyard (Vis. 3)B. A technique for establishing a right
angle to the row markings (Vis. 4) will ensure these
stakes are perpendicular to the row markings. Then repeat
the process of marking with the cultivating teeth spaced
for the desired vine spacing (Vis. 3)B.

(Vis. 4) A method using right-triangle measurements to
establish end stakes for vineyard rows in a line
perpendicular to the first row of a vineyard (figure
adapted from Cahoon et al. 1991).

One ingenious grower variation simply marks the vine
spaces. The first row is staked. The other rows are then
marked while planting by using a marking pole mounted on
the front of the tractor (Vis. 5).

(Vis. 5) The person planting vines is looking for the vine
spacing grooves in the soil for precise placement of the
vine, while a disk on a boom in the front of the tractor
marks a groove in the soil for the next row. others in the
crew supply vines and make sure vines are upright and
mounded with soil. (Oxley Farm, Lawton, Mich.)

If strip tillage is performed on an erodible slope, begin
by placing end stakes for the vineyard rows (Vis. 4).
This will often be adequate marking for rotovation of
the strips. If the field is very long and undulating,
intermediate stakes will be helpful. After the rotovation,
place intermediate stakes in the rotovated strips between
the end stakes as described above. If it is not feasible
to mark vine spaces perpendicular to these strips as
described above, mark vine spaces with spray lime as
described below.

On an outer row of the vineyard, lightly tension a wire
between the end stakes. Use a 100-foot measuring tape to
mark the wire for the desired vine spacing. Begin at an
end stake to mark a half-vine space for the first vine and
then full vine spaces. Using a bucket of spray lime, put a
narrow strip of lime about 2 feet long perpendicular to
the wire where each vine space is marked on the wire. When
complete, relocate this wire to the other outside row of
the vineyard, or at 15 -row intervals on large vineyards.
Repeat the marking with lime. Then a rope or wire can be
stretched temporarily across the 13 or fewer unmarked rows
between these marked rows. Beginning at the first vine
space at one end of the vineyard, place a 2-foot strip of
lime to mark the vine space where the rope crosses the
unmarked rows. Repeat the process down the row until all
the vine spaces have been marked.

In reality, growers will be highly influenced in their
approach to the task of marking a field for planting by
the resources available among their grape-growing
neighbors. Nevertheless, the very important goal of
straight, uniformly spaced rows and vines is universal.

II. Planting Vines

Preparing and Handling Vines

Keep grapevines moist at all times. If the nursery from
which you are purchasing vines is storing them well in a
moist, cold storage, do not accept delivery of vines until
you are ready to use them. Vines that arrive with chlorotic
emerging shoots indicate poor storage techniques. Vines
should not experience extended periods of shipping. When
you receive vines, immediately inspect and water them and
place them in a cool, moist environment. If a cold-storage
facility is not available, plant as soon as possible. Vines
may be kept in a cool cellar for a few days as long as they
are watered often and kept covered to prevent their drying
out. Check tags on all bundles to make sure they are true
to variety and rootstock as per your order. Do not prune
the roots of vines. Plant as much of the root system as can
be well distributed in the soil (see discussion below).
Vines shipped from commercial nurseries often will have had
their top portions pruned so that no further pruning is
required. Vines that you propagated should have the tops
pruned back to 5 to 6 inches. If vine tissues seem dry at
planting, soak bundles of vines in water for 4 to 6 hours
prior to planting. Vines should be transported to the field
under tarps or in covered containers (Vis. 6).

(Vis. 6) Grapevines being loaded on a planter. Vines were
transported to the field on a hay wagon and kept covered
with a tarp to prevent drying. (Jim and Dan Nitz Farm,
Baroda, Mich.)

Planting Techniques

Most vineyards are planted with a modified tree planter
(Vis. 5). This piece of equipment seats one or two people.
When there are two, individuals may alternate planting
vines or one may prepare vines for insertion into the
furrow while the other plants. While the tractor driver
keeps the planter in line with the row markings, the
person(s) planting vines places a vine in the furrow each
time it reaches a cross marking (Vis. 5). When vines are
planted, place roots as deep in the trench as possible
(Vis. 7), make a quick swirling motion of the vine, and
then pull it up slightly to get good root distribution.
Some growers have usefully modified the flanges on a tree
planter to open a furrow as much as 9 inches wide and 24
inches deep (Vis. 8). Grafted vines should have the graft
union situated approximately 2 inches above the level of
the vineyard floor (Vis. 9). This facilitates both hilling
and removing soil from around the graft union. If the root
systems of vines are so large that they cannot be well
distributed in the trench at planting, then modest root
pruning may be warranted. Nevertheless, for the health of
the vine and to promote its maximum rate of establishment,
make the extra effort to plant as much well distributed
root system as possible. Though tree planters often have
wheels or blades to fill in the trench, hand labor should
follow the planter (Vis. 10) to straighten vines, make a
final adjustment on the height of the graft union on
grafted vines and firm the soil around each vine.

(Vis. 7) A vine being planted in a trench. It is placed as
deep Possible, shaken slightly to distribute roots and
then lifted the proper height. Blades attached to the
planter are ing soil into the trench. (Oxley Farm, Lawton,
Mich.)

(Vis. 8) This planter has been modified to open a trench
as much as 24 inches deep and 9 inches wide so that the
large vine root systems can be planted with good
distribution in the soil. Blades behind the planter fill
in the trench with soil. (Oxley Farm, Lawton, Mich.)

(Vis. 9) A young grapevine showing a root system that was
well distributed at planting and the proper height
placement of the graft union.

When planting by hand, it is helpful to till the soil
before planting. one approach is first to rotovate strips
for the vine rows. If a V-shaped shovel plow is available,
it can then be used to open a trench for planting (Vis. (Vis.
11). It may be possible to mark vine spaces perpendicular
to the rows with a marker, then plant at the intersections
of that grid. It is also possible to plant by hand along a
wire that has been lightly tensioned between end-row
stakes. Placing this wire directly on the row complicates
digging holes and distributing root systems. Therefore, it
is helpful to offset this wire about 15 inches from where
the vines will be planted. Then a 15-inch stick can be used
to measure from the wire to the precise location for vine
placement. Mark vine positions on the wire, beginning with
a half-vine spacing. Do not use a stick to measure the
length of individual vine spaces - small errors in vine
placement become cumulative as one plants down the row.
Holes dug with a shovel should be at least 12 inches in
diameter and 12 inches deep. Make sure that the roots are
well distributed and that the ends of the roots are at the
bottom of the hole, not creeping up the sides to the
surface. Mound soil around each vine to hold it upright.

(Vis. 10) Members of the planting crew follow the planter
to make sure each vine is upright and has a firm mound of
soil around it. The marking grid is evident on the soil.
(Jim and Dan Nitz Farm, Baroda, Mich.)

(Vis. 11) A V shaped shovel plow has opened a trench for
hand planting of vines. The 12-inch ruler next to the vine
shows that root systems can easily be distributed 12 to 15
inches deep at the bottom of this trench without any
additional digging. A mound of soil is then gathered by
hand around each vine and the rest of the trench is filled
in mechanically.

Augers may be used to dig the holes for planting vines by
hand. In soils with clay, however, augering may compress
soil on the sides of the hole, making it impenetrable to
roots. If such soil compression is suspected, chip off
soil on the side walls of the hole during planting.

III. Steps Immediately After Planting

Hilling Soil Around Vines

The soil around vines immediately after planting is
generally level or slightly depressed. Before the
introduction of preemergence herbicides in the early
1950s, weed control around vines was accomplished by
alternately hilling and removing soil around vines. Though
weed control around vines is now accomplished chemically
in most vineyards, hilling soil around vines is still
desirable for several reasons: vineyards are often planted
with rows across sloping ground so that ridges of soil
under the trellis interrupt the highly erosive downhill
flow of water during heavy rains; depressions in the soil
around grapevines may concentrate herbicides at the bases
of young vines and lead to vine injury; and hilling soil
around graft unions during the winter is the best known
method of affording winter protection to those tissues.

Offset plows, disks, cultivators, etc., are commonly used
to hill soil around newly planted vines immediately after
planting (Vis. 12). Perform this task before applying any
herbicides. A ridge of soil 4 to 6 inches above the level
vineyard floor is a reasonable goal. If a deep furrow was
created during the planting process, a somewhat higher
hilling will be necessary to compensate for settling of
the soil. Although covering graft unions may initiate
scion rooting, it keeps young graft unions moist during
the early growth of vines. Scion roots that form should be
removed when soil is cleared away from around vines the
following spring.

(Vis. 12) A new planting of 'Cabernet franc' vines showing
hilling of soil in a ridge around vines. (Doug Nitz Farm,
Baroda, Mich.)

Hilling soil around grafted grapevines is often considered
as protection for the graft unions against winter injury
from low temperatures. However, what is really desired is
to protect not only the graft union but also the scion
tissues 2 to 4 inches above the graft. This affords the
opportunity to renew a severely winterinjured grapevine
(Vis. 13)A-D. Otherwise, winter injury could occur
immediately above the graft union (Vis. 13)E and prevent
any possibility of renewing the vine (Vis. 13)F.
Therefore, be sure that hilling of grafted vines is
sufficient to provide 2 to 4 inches of settled soil over
the graft.

(Vis. 13) A schematic of the base of a grafted grapevine
(A) showing the progression of crown galling after a
winter injury episode, depending on whether hilling of
soil covers the graft union and vine tissues several
inches above the graft union (B-D) or covers only the
graft union (E-G).

A second strategy uses hilling around new grapevines as a
means of weed control. A light cultivation about 3 weeks
after the planting begins to fill in furrows and cover any
newly emerged weed seedlings. A second and possibly a
third cultivation at 2- to 3-week intervals gradually
fills in planting furrows and creates a ridge of soil
around vines while suppressing emerging weed seedlings.

Controlling Weeds

Weed control is the single most important cultural
practice in vineyard establishment. It should dominate
site preparation as well as vine management immediately
after planting. Without weed control, other cultural
practices such as nitrogen fertilization, irrigation and
vine pruning severity will be incapable of promoting vine
size development (Vis. 14). When these cultural practices
are used in combination with weed control, however, they
can have a positive, additive influence on vine growth
(Vis. 14).

(Vis. 14) Weight of cane prunings per vine for 'Niagara'
grapevines after two growing seasons. Vines were subjected
to combinations of weed control under the trellis,
nitrogen fertilization, irrigation and severe (S) or light
(L) pruning. (Vineyard near Benton Harbor, Mich.)

If vineyard site preparation properly eliminates perennial
weed growth, weed control after planting is a matter of
preventing weeds that develop from seed. Two fundamental
questions relate to that task: how much weed control is
desirable around newly planted vines and how can it be
accomplished?

Weed control around grapevines typically is established in
bands along the vine rows. Vineyard row middles are a
separate aspect of vineyard management.

A quarter-century ago, most eastern U.S. vineyards were
managed with a 30- to 36-inch-wide weed-free band under
the trellis. That width has evolved to approximately 40 to
48 inches. However, even wider weed-free bands - up to 96
inches around newly planted vines - can promote
significantly greater vine growth (Vis. 15).

(Vis. 15) The dry weight per vine for leaves, roots and
shoots of 'Niagara' grapevines at the end of their first
growing season. Vines had varying widths of weed-free
bands around them. (Vineyard near Benton Harbor, Mich.)

Therefore, a grower needs to consider two opposing factors
when deciding how large a weed-free area to manage around
newly planted grapevines. The first is the erodibility of
the site. When preemergence herbicides first became
available for vineyard use, some growers thought that
complete control of vegetation on the vineyard floor would
be desirable. This strategy often led to highly erosive
conditions (Vis. 16), so it was abandoned. However, the
wider the weed control band is around new vines, the
greater the opportunity for vine growth. Therefore, a
grower needs to decide how wide a weed-free band can be
established safely around vines. That width can often be
enlarged if it is used in combination with erosion control
practices such as ridging soil along the vines and
maintaining a sod strip in the row middles. A minimum 48-
inch-wide weed-free band should be possible in most
situations. At times, even wider weed-free bands will be
useful.

(Vis. 16) A highly eroded vineyard that has lost a large
amount of topsoil because sod strips were not maintained
in the row middles. Vines are small and unproductive.

The options for weed control around newly planted
grapevines are manual, mechanical, chemical, mulching and
combinations thereof. Manual weed control with hoeing and
hand weeding is an acceptable vineyard practice and can
result in good vine size development. However, those who
intend to practice manual weed control around more than a
hundred vines often grossly underestimate the difficulty
of the task. Faithful biweekly weeding throughout the
growing season is the key for making this weed control
strategy successful. This means marking the calendar so
that 2-week periods do not stretch into 3 or 4 weeks!

Mechanical weed control around newly planted vines is
practiced with several types of equipment, including
hilling-up/taking-out plows, offset rotovating devices,
offset cultivators, etc. Although such efforts may control
weeds between vines well, they do not control the
critically important weed growth immediately around vines.
Therefore, supplemental manual weed control around vines
is essential. Even if cross-cultivation with disks or
rotovators is possible, manual weeding immediately around
vines is still critical to promote vine size development
(Vis. 17).

(Vis. 17) This new vineyard was cross-cultivated in the
first six weeks after planting. Manual weeding/hoeing was
not performed immediately around vines.

Mulching materials used to control weeds around newly
planted vines include strips of black plastic mulch,
straw, grass clippings, shredded bark, stones and
newspaper held down with stones. Commercial use of black
plastic mulch typically results in vine growth that is no
better than that obtained with herbicides. There are the
added complications of managing vineyard row middles at
the edge of the plastic mulch and disposing of the plastic
at the end of 1 or 2 years.

Though weed control around most newly planted vines in
vineyards is attempted with preemergence herbicides, this
is not an easy task. The number of herbicides for this
purpose is limited, and many do not control a broad
spectrum of weed species. In addition, the grower must
obtain and calibrate equipment to ensure proper rate and
patterns of herbicide application. Furthermore, adequate
rainfall after application is required to activate the
herbicides. Too often, some aspect of this combination of
factors fails despite the paramount importance of weed
control in new vineyards. For this reason, we'll review
the steps involved with this task in detail.

Herbicide control of weed growth in a newly planted
vineyard begins with the application of a preemergence
herbicide. This type of herbicide interferes with seed
germination. It will not control existing weeds this is
why control of perennial weeds before planting is so
important. Preemergence herbicides are typically highly
waterinsoluble materials, yet they must penetrate the top
1/4 to 1/2 inch of the soil to be effective. Hence,
rainfall after application is important. Because these
materials are effective only on a thin top layer of soil,
they should be applied after all vineyard tasks that will
disturb the soil surface have been completed. This
includes hand fertilization of vines and installation of
trellis. If a grower waits too long to apply a
preemergence herbicide after planting, germination of
weeds already may have begun or a late spring drought may
occur. Either of these may result in poor performance of
the material. Therefore, it is desirable to plant vines as
early in the spring as possible and then perform hilling,
fertilizing, trellis installation (if one elects to do so)
and weed spraying in rapid succession. If trellis
installation is deferred, a well managed operation can
perform these other tasks in a 2 day period.

Several preemergence herbicides for use on newly planted
grapevines have been evaluated at the Southwest Michigan
Research and Extension Center and are discussed below.
Reference to products mentioned does not imply an
endorsement by Michigan State University or bias against
those not mentioned. The legal registration of products
mentioned in this publication is subject to change.
Growers should always check with the local Extension
office on the current registration status of herbicides
before using them. A complete listing of preemergence
herbicides available for use on vineyards can be found in
the publication "Fruit Spraying Calendar," Michigan State
University Extension bulletin E-154.

Snapshot (oryzalin/isoxaben combination): This material is
a combination of the herbicides Surflan and Gallery. It is
highly effective against a broad spectrum of weed species.
In our trials, the lowest registered rate of 3.75 pounds
per acre sprayed was inferior to the full rate of 5.0
pounds per acre sprayed. Therefore, use this product at
its full rate. Snapshot provided the best herbicide
control of weeds around newly planted vines in our trials.

Surflan (oryzalin): This product is highly effective
against many grass and broadleaf weed species but only
partially effective against certain other broadleaf weed
species, including ragweed and wild carrot. Therefore, it
should be used at its full rate of 6 quarts per acre
sprayed and weed development should be carefully
monitored. A supplemental weed spray, as discussed below,
is likely to be required.

Prowl (pendimethalin): This material is effective for many
grass and broadleaf weed species at a rate of 4.0 quarts
per acre sprayed but is totally ineffective against common
ragweed. Therefore, it must be used in combination with
the supplemental spray program discussed below.

The cost of weed control strategies in new vineyard
plantings varies considerably, with manual weeding
generally being the most costly Table 2(Vis. T2).

Weed control planning should begin weeks or even months
before planting so appropriate materials and equipment can
be readied for a timely application of the chosen
strategy. Adequate resources should be committed to this
aspect of vineyard establishment in preference to
fertilization, irrigation or early establishment of the
trellis.

Supplemental Weed Control

Even with good planning and application of any
preemergence herbicide, a few weed seedlings often escape
control in the treated area around vines. When weed
seedlings in the herbicide-treated area around grapevines
are freed from competition with other plant growth, they
grow rapidly. For example, a common ragweed plant, which
might develop normally to a height of 18 inches, can
attain a height of 4 to 5 feet by midsummer when it
escapes control in a herbicide band. Therefore, a
relatively few escaped weed seedlings can compete
significantly with the grapevines.

To control those escaped weed seedlings, mark the calendar
for inspection of weed control around vines 30 days after
planting. Gramoxone Extra herbicide may be applied at this
time to newly planted vineyards. Grapevine shoots at 30
days after planting typically have just begun their growth
and often will be 6 to 10 inches long. Therefore, it is
quite feasible to spot-spray Gramoxone Extra around vines
to control escaped weed seedlings without injuring vines
(Vis. 18). A person with a backpack sprayer can treat
several acres in a day. Gramoxone Extra is a highly toxic
restricted-use pesticide. Follow all precautions listed on
its label, including use of protective clothing, when
using this product.

(Vis. 18) Grapevines 30 days after planting showing an
occasional weed seedling that has escaped control in a 48-
inch wide preemergence herbicide spray band. Spot
herbicide spraying to eliminate those weeds is very
helpful at this stage.

When a vineyard site has been well managed by eradicating
perennial weed problems, applying an appropriate
preemergence herbicide after planting and using a
supplemental Gramoxone Extra spray as needed, a grower can
expect good weed control in a new vineyard until sometime
in August (Vis. 19). This situation often is acceptable
because the majority of vine growth for the season will
have occurred and the onset of weed competition will help
slow the vines' growth so that shoots develop into mature
canes.

(Vis. 19) This new vineyard has had good weed control
around vines, which is just beginning to deteriorate in
late August. This weed growth will help to slow vine
growth and develop maximum winter hardiness.

Fertilizing

A soil test taken during site preparation may indicate a
need for potassium fertilization. If so, applying
potassium fertilizer in a band along the vine rows
immediately after planting will be more efficient than
broadcasting the fertilizer before planting.

Newly planted grapevines almost always respond to nitrogen
fertilization. An application of 30 pounds of actual
nitrogen per acre is generally recommended for most
plantings. This is equivalent to approximately 2 ounces of
ammonium nitrate or 6 ounces of a blended fertilizer such
as 10- 10- 10 per vine on typical vine and row spacings.
Apply this fertilizer by ringing it around each grapevine
in a radius of approximately I foot after any hilling
operation and before the application of any herbicides.
Some growers have obtained impressive early growth of
vines by applying as much as twice this amount with 50
pounds actual nitrogen being broadcast at planting and a
supplemental banded application of 10 to 15 pounds of
actual nitrogen being applied in early July.

Irrigating

Few Michigan vineyards are irrigated. Watering new vines
in any manner is not essential for the establishment of a
vineyard in Michigan. Research at the Southwest Michigan
Research and Extension Center, however, suggests that when
newly planted vineyards have been well managed for weed
control and nitrogen fertilization, irrigation may further
enhance vine development (Vis. 14). If a grower intends to
install an irrigation system in a Michigan vineyard, it
should be in place at planting because the first 2 years
of the vineyard's life are likely to be the most cost-
effective time to use it.

Growers occasionally make efforts to water newly planted
grapevines. Water has been carried to the field in spray
tanks, by a series of hoses or by other creative means.
The impact of these efforts is questionable. To be
effective, irrigation of young vines should

penetrate a minimum of 6 to 10 inches into the ground. A
quick application of a few gallons of water per grapevine
will result in most of the water either running off or
evaporating and not being utilized by the vine. If a
temporary irrigation system is considered for a new
vineyard planting, then disposable trickle irrigation
tape, which can cost as little as 2 cents per foot, should
be considered. A relatively low-cost manifold that
includes a pressure regulator and a filter can be used
with this low-cost trickle tape. Such a system can apply
enough water over a period of several hours to percolate
into the vines' root zones and be effective, The
publication "Components of a Temporary Trickle irrigation
System for New Vineyards" (Zabadal, 1997a) is available to
guide growers.

Trellis/Staking

The benefits of supporting grapevines in their first
growing season include better pesticide spray coverage,
reduced risk of disease and vines that are kept out of
vineyard traffic. Therefore, when growers find it
economically and logistically feasible, trellis posts and
one or two wires should be installed immediately after
planting (Vis. 20), see section V, Engineering a Modern
Trellis.

(Vis. 20) A new vineyard managed with the installation of
a trellis immediately after planting. String was tied from
a shootless spur on each vine to a wire installed on the
top of the posts. Vines were then wound around this string
as they grew. (Dongvillo Farm, St. Joseph, Mich.)

Using Grow Tubes

Nevertheless, many large commercial vineyard acreages are
established successfully without the use of any vine-
supporting structures in the first growing season
(Vis. 21). When vines are managed this way, it often is
desirable to reposition shoots out of the vineyard row
middles and into the vine rows with a pitchfork or garden
rake a few times during the growing season to prevent
injury from vineyard traffic.

(Vis. 21) This new vineyard was managed without installing
trellis after planting. Posts and one or two wires will be
installed during the winter between years 1 and 2.
(Kerlikowske Farm, Berrien Springs, Mich.)

Growers occasionally place individual stakes next to
grapevines for training in their first growing season.
Though this procedure can be helpful the first year of
vine management, these stakes often have little value in
succeeding years. Therefore, the material and labor cost
associated with such staking often would be better
invested in constructing the permanent trellis.
Appropriate vine tying techniques (Zabadal, 1997b) should
be used to attach vines to the trellis.

The use of grow tubes at planting is a relatively new
cultural practice. It is well documented that using grow
tubes hastens shoot elongation. However, the long-term
effects of such rapid shoot growth on winter hardiness and
the stability of these tissues in coolclimate vineyards is
uncertain. Root development to exploit the soil volume,
increase vine size and increase the vine's capacity for
fruiting should be the primary goal in the first 2 years
of managing a vineyard. Research data indicate that when
weeds around vines are controlled and vines are
fertilized, unpruned newly planted vines develop more leaf
area and roots than severely pruned vines. That strategy
is incompatible with the use of grow tubes because a large
number of shoots per vine can not be placed in these
tubes. Nevertheless, grow tubes provide a sheltered, warm
climate for increasing the rate of shoot growth as well as
a physical barrier to protect vines from herbicide spray
operations. The positive and negative attributes of grow
tubes in cool-climate vineyards will be verified over the
next 5 to 10 years. For the present, growers should
consider them on a trial basis.

IV. Year 1 Vine Management

The primary goal of vine management in the first 2 years
of a vineyard is to develop large, healthy vines with
large root systems. It is possible, under ideal
conditions, for vines to fill the trellis totally with a
healthy, functional canopy by the end of their second
growing season and to produce significant crops of quality
fruit in the third year. To accomplish this goal, all the
vineyard tasks in the first 2 years are aimed at reducing
or eliminating stresses on the vines. These stresses
include pests (weeds, diseases and insects), drought,
nutritional deficiencies and cropping stress.

Adjusting the Number of Shoots Per Vine

A basic strategy for developing vine size is to promote
the development of as much functional leaf area as
possible. Traditional vine management of newly planted
vines involves reducing shoot numbers to two to four per
vine when shoot growth is 6 to 10 inches long, which is
compatible with the contemporary use of grow tubes.

Research on newly planted vines of the 'Niagara' variety
at the Southwest Michigan Research and Extension Center
indicates that when vines were well managed with regard to
weed control and nitrogen fertilization, those left
unpruned after planting produced more leaf area and larger
root systems than those that were adjusted to two shoots
per vine.

Defruiting

It is often surprising to new grape growers that vines can
produce fruit the year they are planted. However,
producing a crop is detrimental to the development of
young vines. Therefore, vines should be defruited at least
their first 2 years of growth or until they have
adequately filled the trellis. Growers can perform this
task with shoot adjustment when shoots are approximately
10 inches long. Retain one cluster per vine when there is
a need to check the trueness to variety of vines.

Controlling Pests

Keep the leaves of new vines healthy. Powdery mildew and
downy mildew can attack the leaf area of young vines.
Fungicide spray programs to prevent these diseases should
be part of the first-year management of vines but need not
be as rigorous as programs for mature vines with crops.
Locally systemic fungicides to control these diseases,
applied at spray intervals of 14 to 21 days, generally are
adequate. Insect control in new vineyards is a matter of
scouting weekly because both traditional grape and non-
grape insect pests may attack new vines. Particularly
check portions of vineyards that border hedgerows or
woodlands. Consult with Extension personnel and refer to
current grape pest spray guides to determine pesticide
materials, rates and times of application appropriate to
your situation.

Managing Shoot Growth

Trellises with one or two wires - one at the top of the
vineyard posts and possibly another at 30 inches above
ground level - provide a structure for supporting vines
during the first 2 years of their growth (Vis. 20). One
strategy for supporting shoot growth in a first-year
vineyard involves tying twine to a shootless vine spur
(Vis. 22), then looping the twine around the lower wire
(if there is one) and then tying it to the upper wire
(Vis. 23). This provides a structure for attachment of
upward-growing shoots. Large bales of twine and boxes of
several thousand wire twist ties are common, low-cost
commercial tying materials for grapevines. Walk the new
vineyard periodically through the growing season to
loosely tie shoot growth. Distribute growth over the
trellis as much as possible.

(Vis. 22) A close-up view of the trunk of a vine at the
end of its second growing season. Twine was tied to a
shootless spur at the base of the vine and then to
the top wire of the trellis. The new trunk was gently
wound around this twine to keep it straight.

(Vis. 23) A piece of twine tied vertically from a spur to
the trellis wire. Shoots are then tied loosely around this
vertical twine support and the trellis wires with twist
ties and other pieces of twine to distribute growth on the
trellis.

If a trellis was not installed (Vis. 21), use a pitchfork
or rake to move shoots out of the vineyard row middles
before mowing, spraying, etc.

Managing Row Middles

Any growth of weeds or sod in the row middles of the newly
planted vineyard is likely to reduce the growth of new
vines. Therefore, this growth should be kept to a minimum,
especially in the first half of the growing season. If the
vineyard site will permit it, a light, trashy cultivation
of the row middles works well. Other options include close
mowing or arresting growth in the middle with herbicide
sprays. The width of the row middle will depend on the
width of the weed-free band established in the vine rows.
The majority of vine growth should have occurred by early
August. Then it is time to establish a cover in row
middles to stabilize the vineyard floor against fallwinter
erosion and to help slow vine growth so tissues will
develop hardiness before winter. Allow weed growth to
regrow (Vis. 22) or, if the row middles are cultivated,
sow a cover crop in early August. Rye is a good choice if
it can be sown precisely in the row middles (Vis. 24). If
seed must be broadcast in a less precise manner, then oats
are a good choice because they will not overwinter to
become a weed problem under the trellis the following
spring.

(Vis. 24) A well managed vineyard after its first growing
season. Rye has been sown in the row middles and trellis
posts have been installed in the outer and middle rows.
Posts will then be installed in the rest of the rows.
(Humphrey Farm, Lakemont, N.Y.)

Controlling Weeds Around Vines

Good weed control should be maintained around newly
planted vines until at least the end of July. If all the
weed control steps discussed previously were property
applied, no additional effort will be required.
Unfortunately, imperfect weed control around newly planted
vines is all too common. Options for controlling weeds
after vine growth has begun are few, and the task becomes
considerably more difficult as the season progresses.
Therefore, attend to such problems early in the growing
season when they begin. Mechanical approaches such as gas-
powered weed whips or cross-disking are not capable of
weeding close to the vine. Therefore, hand hoeing and
weeding around vines are the last resort. Spot spraying
with Gramoxone Extra herbicide must be applied very
carefully to avoid injuring young vines.

V. Engineering A Modern Trellis

Building a good vineyard trellis is very important, not
only because it can be the single largest cash expense in
the establishment of a vineyard but also because it can
influence significantly the long-term productivity and
profitability of a vineyard. Durability is important
because the real cost of a vineyard trellis is determined
by its years of service rather than initial cost.
Considerable annual maintenance of trellises and frequent
replacement of trellis components are inefficient and
unnecessary with today's technology. A good trellis
promotes good canopy management with well exposed leaves
and, when desired, well exposed fruit. It facilitates
efficient performance of vineyard tasks. The trend toward
increased mechanization of vineyard tasks requires precise
vine structures, which begin with a proper vineyard
trellis. Crooked vineyard rows, sagging trellis wires and
bowed vine trunks jeopardize the precise management of
vines.

When a trellis is installed in stages for reasons of labor
management and/or cash flow, install posts and two wires
either at planting or in the fall/spring between years 1
and 2, then install end post anchors and the full
complement of trellis wires in the fall/spring between
years 2 and 3.

Types of Posts

Selection of trellis post materials will be influenced by
the types of posts available, post installation equipment
available, choice of a vine training system, cost and
personal preference.

Metal Posts

Metal vineyard trellis posts are an attractive option
because they are relatively easy to handle and install.
Their cost can also be competitive with that of wooden
posts. Metal posts specifically fabricated for trellises
are in use in some viticultural regions. Those in use in
Midwestern vineyards, however, are typically generic
fence-type posts. Many types of metal posts have
questionable lateral strength. Metal posts have been known
to bend when supporting large crops in windy locations,
and they may be difficult to use with complex trellis
designs. Relatively new specialized metal posts for
vineyards may overcome these limitations. However, their
durability under Midwestern conditions is unknown. Growers
occasionally have installed metal posts in predominantly
wooden post vineyards to serve as grounding rods against
lightning strikes on vineyard rows. The worth of that
strategy is undocumented.

Wooden Posts from Native Tree Species

Vineyard trellis construction a half-century ago was
dominated by the use of posts cut from native tree
species. These posts occasionally were subjected to on-
farm preservative treatments but often were untreated.
Because most native tree species are not rot-resistant,
random selection of trellis posts from woodlots is likely
to result in a high percentage of post failure in 10 years
or fewer, with some posts failing in as few as 4 years.
The annual cost of a post is its cash cost plus the labor
required to install it divided by its years of service.
inexpensive posts with a short life are costly per year of
service.

Black locust is the woodlot tree species most frequently
used for vineyard trellis posts. Split posts from large
black locust trees or slow-growing small trees that
contain a very high percentage of heartwood typically
provide more than 20 years of service. They have even been
documented to be in service more than 50 years! In
contrast, locust posts from a suckering second growth that
has a very small proportion of heartwood may fail in fewer
than 10 years. The sapwood of black locust is very yellow.
Some veteran grape growers refer to black locust posts
with considerable sapwood as "yellow locust posts." Black
locust posts become very hard when they are fully
seasoned, so some growers install staples to hold wires on
them before that happens.

White cedar is another native tree species that is still
used for vineyard trellis posts (Vis. 20). When these
posts have 80 percent or more of their cross-sectional
area composed of heartwood, they have a life expectancy of
20 years or more. However, white cedar posts with
relatively little heartwood, such as those typical from a
so-called second-growth woodlot, may fail in as few as 5
years, which is why the reputation of white cedar posts is
so variable. on-farm preservative treatments of white
cedar were fairly common many years ago. Reference
materials from the U.S. Department of Agriculture and
other sources provide recipes for this activity, which
rarely is practiced today.

Pressure-treated Wooden Posts

Wooden posts that have been commercially pressuretreated
with a preservative are the predominant type of trellis
post used in Midwestern vineyards today (Vis. 24). Red
pine or southern yellow pine is commonly used. Although
these posts would fail in 4 to 5 years if they were not
preservative treated, with proper treatment they have a
20- to 30year life expectancy. Characteristics that will
influence post life expectancy include the diameter of the
post, the type of preservative used, the amount of
preservative used per unit volume of wood and the vineyard
site. Pressure-treated wooden posts are sold in sizes
according to the minimum diameter at the smaller end of
the post. The cost of a pressure-treated post increases
rapidly as its minimum diameter increases Table 3
(Vis. T3). Therefore, important information is presented
below to address the question "What minimum diameter is
adequate for a trellis post?"

Post Strength and Durability

The strength of a post is proportional to its
crosssectional area. For example, posts 2 and 3 inches in
diameter have crosssectional areas that are only 39 and 56
percent and lateral strengths that are only 25 and 42
percent of those of a 4-inch post, respectively Table 3
(Vis T3).

Post life expectancy is also influenced greatly by
diameter. The rate of leaching and weathering of
preservative from a post is related to its surface area.
As post diameter decreases, the ratio of surface area to
volume decreases, a higher percentage of preservative
leaks from the wood each year and the rate of post decay
increases.

The cost of posts often is related directly to their
cross-sectional area Table 3(Vis. T3). Because a post with
a 3.5-inch minimum diameter often will be guaranteed for
30 years of service, many growers elect to use this size
for line posts.

Four-inch-diameter posts with lateral breaking forces of
970 pounds Table 3(Vis. T3) will be adequate for end posts
when they are new and if they are anchored so that tension
on load-bearing wires is transferred to the anchor.
However, as 4-inch posts decay or if anchoring is
inadequate, or both, lateral forces in excess of 970
pounds are likely to cause post failure. Therefore,
growers often choose posts with diameters larger than 4
inches for end posts. For example, posts with a 5- or 6-
inch diameter will have lateral breaking strengths that
are twice or more than three times that of a 4 inch-
diameter post, respectively Table 3(Vis. T3).

Table 3.(Vis. T3) The cross-sectional area, lateral
breaking force and percentages of those values compared
with a post for pressuretreated pine posts in six diamter
classes.

The two most common chemical preservatives currently used
for pressure treating pine posts are pentachlorophenol
(PCP) and chromated copper arsenate (CCA). PCP posts are
impregnated with a petroleum base; CCA-treated posts are
impregnated with an aqueous solution. The American Wood
Preservers Association establishes standards for the
minimum amounts of these materials that should be
impregnated into wood to ensure long-term resistance to
decay. For both PCP and CCA, the standard for vineyard
posts is 0.4 pounds of material per cubic foot of wood.
Certificates of treatment, service life guarantees or both
may be associated with pressure-treated post products.
Growers should work with their suppliers to obtain these
assurances for this costly part of vineyard establishment.
if there is a doubt about the extent of preservation
treatment when purchasing large quantities of pressure-
treated posts, it is possible to have a post sample
analyzed by a private laboratory.

Large knots are a major defect in pressure-treated pine
posts. They can cause posts to break during installation
or before the end of their projected life expectancy.

Quantities of Posts Required per Acre of Vineyard

How many posts are required per acre of vineyard depends
on the row spacing, the distance between posts and the
number of rows required to plant an acre of vineyard. The
force of gravity causes wires and vines to sag in the
middle of a post space. The distance between posts depends
on a grower's tolerance for sagging, which can be reduced
but not eliminated by increasing tension on trellis wires.
Increasing tension on the trellis wires beyond a certain
point (see section V, "Installing Wires") will not further
reduce sagging and will lead to excessive tension on
wires. Therefore, control of sagging is influenced greatly
by the distance between line posts in a vineyard, which
should ideally not exceed 21 feet and never exceed 24
feet. Table 4 (Vis. T4) presents values for the number of
vines per acre, vines per post space, post spacing and
posts per acre for several row and vine spacing
combinations. Depending on the choice of row spacing, vine
spacing and vines per post space, the number of posts
required per acre of vineyard ranges from 196 to 356.

Table 4.(Vis. T4) Ground area per vine, vines per acre,
vines per post space, post spacing and posts per acre for
several row and vine spacing combinations.

Installing Line Posts

Posts installed within the vineyard rows are called line
posts. A typical 8 foot line post is set 24 to 30 inches
into the ground so that the top of the post is 66 to 72
inches above the vineyard floor. A measuring stick can be
used to guide uniform height installation of posts.
Installation of these posts is best accomplished when
there is good but not excessive soil moisture. Posts
should be installed with their larger diameter end down in
the soil because this portion of the post will decay more
rapidly than the aboveground portion and ultimately cause
the post to fail at ground level. Vineyard posts are
sharpened at their bottom end in some viticultural areas,
either prior to purchase or on the farm. This is
especially useful when pounding posts into heavy soils,
either with a hydraulic post pounder or with a post maul.
In contrast, vineyard posts are rarely sharpened when they
are installed in Michiqan's light sandy Soils. Hydraulic
pounding of posts (Vis. 25) is advantageous because it is
relatively rapid (several times faster than augering). The
posts can be set to a precise desired depth and they are
immediately firm in the ground. Augering of postholes is
also common and requires less expensive equipment than
post pounding. Light soil tends to backfill around and
firm up posts installed in augered holes relatively
quickly, but posts on heavier soils can remain loose for
long periods. Bucket loaders and other hydraulic equipment
have also been used to push posts into the ground.

(Vis. 25) Vineyard trellis posts are often installed with
a hydraulic post pounder like the one shown here. (Stamp
Farm, Rock Stream, N.Y.)

A hand-held posthole digger is the common method of
installing posts in small backyard plantings. Another easy
method for installing a small number of posts or replacing
posts uses a pinch bar and post maul (Vis. 26). Begin with
the pinch bar to punch a hole and then use it to "auger"
the hole deeper and wider with a circular motion. Put the
post in this hole and finish the job with a post maul. A
post maul is a specialized sledgehammer with a head face
about 3.5 inches in diameter (Vis. 26). When using this
venerable tool, stand on a platform such as the trailer
that carried the posts into the vineyard.

(Vis. 26) This post maul has a head with a diameter. It
is used for installing or replacing a small number of
posts.

Installing End Posts

All material preparation and trellis engineering skills
will be for naught if the end posts are not installed
well. End posts function differently than line posts
because they are subjected to a lateral breaking force.
Tension that develops in the load-bearing trellis wires is
transferred to the end post. An end post that is not
anchored or braced will react to this tension by creating
a fulcrum at the soil line. Failure to resist this tension
may result in curvature of the post or its being pulled
through the soil (Vis. 27). End posts that are strong
enough and set deep enough into the soil can resist this
tension and perform well without additional engineering.
For example, large-diameter poles or railroad ties set 4
feet or more into the ground function in this manner. More
commonly, however, an end post is chosen for adequate
breaking strength when used in combination with an end
post anchoring or bracing system. An increase in diameter
of I inch approximately doubles a post's lateral breaking
strength Table 3(Vis. T3). Four-inch-diameter posts should
be considered a minimum requirement for an end post, and 5
to 6-inchdiameter end posts are an excellent choice when
used in conjunction with a well engineered anchoring
system.

(Vis. 27) The end posts in this vineyard were not
adequately anchored. They have moved after installation to
become this random arrangement.

End posts that will be anchored should be installed at an
angle to a depth of 3 feet (Vis. 28), either by augering
or post pounding. To ensure that end posts will line up
properly, first install the end posts on the outside rows.
Then lightly tension two wires between these posts, one at
their tops and one at the soil line. These wires guide the
installation and angling of end posts for the interior
rows. When installing end posts in a large number of rows,
first install end posts at 15 row intervals to provide
guides for installation on the other rows. Angling end
posts 60 degrees from horizontal (Vis. 28)
(Vis. 29) will transfer tension from loadbearing wires to
the anchor at a wider angle than setting posts upright.
The more vertical an end post and the closer anchors are
placed to the end post, the greater the tendency for the
tension on trellis wires to pull the end post inward.

(Vis. 28) Characteristics of an end post anchoring system
that uses an external anchor.

(Vis. 29) This end post was set with a 30-degree angle
from vertical. Reinforcement rod connects the post to the
anchor and an L-shaped crank is being used to tighten the
one wire attached to this post.

There are several good methods for anchoring end posts.
Bracing end posts within the row (Vis. 30) is advantageous
because it avoids conflict with equipment in the
headlands. However, this approach is generally more
complex and costly than external anchoring. Therefore,
anchoring externally to the end post is the most common
method of constructing an end post assembly.

(Vis. 30) Bracing an end post. This avoids conflict
between equipment and external anchors in headlands but is
more difficult and costly to install.

There are several characteristics of good anchor
installation:

* Attach the anchoring wire as close as possible on the
post to the main crop-bearing wire. This facilitates
transfer of tension from the crop-bearing wire to the
anchor and reduces the tendency for the point of
attachment of the anchor to act as a fulcrum.

* Angle the anchoring wire to avoid a narrow angle between
the post and this wire. If the anchor is installed too
close to the post, it may keep the post from rising up but
not from being pulled into the

* Install the anchor so that its shaft rests in line with
the anchoring wire (Vis. 28). Otherwise there will be a
tendency to pull or bend the anchor shaft through the soil
when tension is applied until it achieves this in-line
orientation.

* Install the anchor deep enough and with an anchor plate
of adequate surface area. The anchor plate should be at a
minimum 30inch vertical depth and have a minimum diameter
of 6 inches. Screw-in anchors may or may not provide a
satisfactory shortcut to this procedure.

* Make sure that the anchoring plate is in contact with
firm, undisturbed soil. Auger holes for anchors
vertically. Then use a crowbar to make a narrow slit in
the soil, angling the slit from the bottom of the hole up
to the point of anchor attachment to the post. The shaft
of the anchor is placed in this slit and the plate of the
anchor sits firmly against undisturbed soil on the side
wall of the augered hole (Vis. 28).

* Use a double-stranded #9 wire or the equivalent for the
anchoring wire to ensure that it will not be the weakest
point in the assembly. Reinforcement rod (1/2-inch
diameter) also has been used very effectively to attach
anchors to end posts. A loop is bent and welded in the
shop at one end of a 7-foot piece of rod, slid over the
post and then held with a staple. The other end is bent
with a torch through and around the loop in the anchor
(Vis. 29).

End post anchoring systems should be in place no later
than the start of the third growing season. Final
tensioning of trellis wires is done after anchoring is
completed.

Wire Characteristics of Importance for Use in Vineyard
Trellises

The purchase of wire for vineyard trellises has often
focused on two characteristics of wire: gauge and
corrosion resistance. Growers intuitively know that the
gauge of a wire determines its ability to support a load.
Because most wire used for vineyard trellises is made of
steel, it is also readily apparent that galvanized wire is
desirable to resist rusting.

Improved materials and technology make it possible to
install vineyard trellis wires that are no more expensive
than traditional materials but that improve vine
management, reduce trellis maintenance costs and lengthen
the life expectancy of the vineyard trellis. The following
information will assist growers in properly choosing and
installing trellis wires.

The tensile strength of a wire, a measure of how much
pulling (tension) is required to break it, is determined
by the alloy mixture used to make the wire.

Traditional vineyard wire for many decades has been
relatively soft, so-called low-carbon wire. Today vineyard
trellises are increasingly being constructed with stiffer,
harder, high-tensile (high-carbon) wire. Tensile strength
is reported as the pounds of tension that would be
required to break a wire if it had a crosssectional area
of 1 square inch. Traditional soft vineyard wire typically
has a tensile strength rating of about 77,000 pounds per
square inch (psi), whereas high-tensile wire has a tensile
strength of about 200,000 psi. The ability of a wire to
resist breaking is directly proportional to its cross-
sectional area. Therefore, the breaking point of a
particular gauge of wire is determined by its tensile
strength multiplied by the cross- sectional area of the
wire. For example, a low-carbon, 9-gauge wire with a
tensile strength of 77,000 psi and a cross-sectional area
of 0.0 172 square inches has a breaking point of 77,000 x
0.0 172 = 1,324 pounds. Growers often buy large-diameter
(lower gauge number) wires to obtain high breaking-point
values for the major load-bearing wires of the trellis,

Wire, however, does not simply resist all tension until it
reaches its breaking point. Rather, as tension is put on a
wire, it begins to stretch. If a small amount of tension
is put on a wire, it will return to its original length
when the tension is released. As tension on a wire is
increased, stretching continues and eventually a portion
of that stretching becomes irreversible. When that
happens, the wire has reached its yield point, which
occurs at 65 to 85 percent of the tension required to
break the wire. The importance of the yield point for
trellis wire has been recognized only in recent years.
Relatively modest lengthening of trellis wires causes them
to sag considerably between trellis posts so that vines
sag. When vine trunks bow, it is more difficult to move
equipment through the vineyard, prune mechanically, hill
and remove soil around vines, and perform other tasks.
Trellis maintenance is increased because wires that have
stretched need retensioning. Vines with cordon training
systems may be so embedded into wires that retensioning
may not be possible. Stretching of the wire reduces the
crosssectional area of a portion of the wire slightly, and
this lowers its yield and breaking points. Therefore, more
irreversible wire stretching will occur at a lower
tension, which leads to repeated cycles of wire stretching
and eventual wire breakage.

If a wire never reaches its yield point, none of the above
problems will occur. Therefore, trellis wires should be
installed with consideration of their yield points, not
their breaking points. A grower can avoid reaching the
yield point with low-carbon, soft wires by increasing the
diameter of the wire, but purchasing a large-diameter,
soft wire to obtain a higher yielding point wire is not
cost effective. High-tensile wires have yield points that
are approximately double that of soft wires for the same
diameter (gauge) of wire, and their cost per foot is about
half that of a soft wire with a comparable yield point
Table 5(Vis. T5). Therefore, a grower can use a higher
gauge (thinner) high-tensile wire and have the same yield
point to resist stretching as a smaller gauge (thicker),
soft, low-carbon wire that costs more per foot. For
example, a high-tensile 12.5 gauge wire and a soft 9-gauge
wire have approximately the same yield points - 1,063 and
1, 118 psi, respectively - but their costs per foot are
1.6 cents and 3.5 cents, Table 5(Vis. T5).

Table 5.(Vis. T5) Characteristics and costs of several
kinds of wire typically used to construct vineyard
trellises.

Most vineyard wires are made of steel. As they rust, their
tensile strength is reduced. Small-diameter wires without
corrosion protection can lose more than half of their
tensile strength in fewer than five years. Therefore,
corrosion resistance of trellis wire is very important to
the grape grower. The highest quality zinc galvanization
for wire corrosion resistance is a type 3 galvanization,
which, according to the American Society of Testing
Materials (ASTM Designation Al 16-57), specifies the
ounces of zinc required per square foot of wire surface so
that wires may resist the onset of rusting for up to 30
years. When using other types of wire, such as aluminum or
plastic, growers should obtain assurances of their
durability to resist corrosion and ultraviolet light
degradation.

In summary, wire for vineyard trellises should be
purchased on the basis of yield point, cost per foot and
corrosion resistance rather than breaking point and cost
per pound.

Amount of Wire Required

The number of wires required to construct a trellis will
range from one to 10, depending on the choice of a vine
training system. Trellis wires generally serve two
functions. They are either load-bearing wires, which
support most of the weight of the vines and crop, or so-
called catch wires, which help orient the structure of the
vine but do not support much weight. Loadbearing wires
should be chosen with emphasis on their yield points.
Catch wires have less demanding specifications and can be
chosen on the basis of cost per foot of wire and
durability.

When purchasing wire, it is often useful to know the
number of feet of wire per pound, Table 6(Vis. T6) and the
quantity of wire required per acre of vineyard, Table 7
(Vis. T7).

Table 6.(Vis. T6) Feet of wire per 100 pounds for several
gauges of wire used in trellis construction.

Table 7. (Vis. T7) The length of trellis per acr and the
pounds of wire for one wire per acre for comginations of
five gauges of wire and seven vineyard row spacings.

Installing Wires

Trellis wires are properly tensioned to 270 to 300 pounds.
it is quite common to overtension wires to put excessive
strain on end posts and stretch wires irreversibly beyond
their yield point. A simple, effective technique for
proper tensioning of wires involves suspending a bucket
containing the appropriate weight from the top wire
(Vis. 31). A bucket and chain assembly that is 6 inches
shorter than the height of the wire is hung on the wire in
the middle of a post space. This chain, bucket and its
contents need to be a specific weight in relation to the
distance between posts and the desired wire tension Table
8(Vis. T8). As the wire is pulled, the desired tension
will be achieved when the bucket is lifted off the ground.

(Vis. 31) A technique for tensioning wires to be used in
conjunction with information in Table 8(Vis. T8).
(Figure reproduced courtesy of Washington State University
Extension.)

Table 8.(Vis. T8) The total test weight, in pounds, of a
chain, bucket and its contents that will indicate 270 or
300 psi tension on wire for three post spacings when used
as indicated in (Vis. 31)

This technique for tensioning wires allows a grower to
learn the appropriate amount of tension to place on wires
so that he can then feel the 270 to 300 pounds of tension
on a trellis wire.

It is difficult to properly tension wires on relatively
short trellis rows because very little movement of end
posts can result in considerable sagging of wires, even
when good end post anchoring is installed. Consider
two options for vineyard rows 150 feet long or less.
The first is to use specially designed springs, which
are placed in line with trellis wires to keep them tight
year round (Vis. 32). The second possibility is to
release tension on wires each fall so they will not exceed
their yield point when they contract during the winter,
and then retension them in the spring.

(Vis. 32) This spring absorbs changes in the trellis wire
tension due to temperature fluctuations or crop load so
that the wire never reaches its yield point.

Several tips can guide the proper installation of wires on
trellis posts. U-shaped, galvanized or otherwise coated
staples approximately 1 1/2 inches long are used commonly
for this vineyard task. They should be applied on the
windward side of the posts for standard trellis wires.
When paired catch wires are installed, staples also will
be applied on the leeward side of the trellis. Staples
should have a slightly downward orientation when nailed
into the posts on level ground. Apply staples to posts in
knoll and valley areas at a somewhat exaggerated downward
or upward angle, respectively. Nail staples so they are
not directly oriented with the grain of the wood in the
posts, which often means slightly off vertical.

A variation for attaching a load-bearing wire at the top
of a line post is to place it on top of the post rather
than on the side. If periodic post pounding is anticipated
to reset line posts moved by frost heaving, a groove 3/4
inch deep can be made with a chain saw in the top of the
line posts in line with the vineyard row (Vis. 33). Then
place the wire in the groove and place a staple on top of
the groove. This permits the post to be pounded without
damage to the wire.

(Vis. 33) The groove in the top of this vineyard post
provides excellent support of the trellis wire and still
allows post pounding without damage to the wire.

Regardless of which of the many ways you use to attach
wires to end post assemblies, they should be installed
with gentle bends. Abruptly bending or stretching a wire
reduces its yield and breaking points and that point
becomes the weakest link in the trellis assembly, The
simplest method of attaching a wire to an end post is to
wrap it around the end post once and then gently bend it
around itself several times (Vis. 34). Some prefer to
place the staples on each post on the end or back side,
while others prefer to place a pair of staples on each
side to help maintain the horizontal orientation of
closely spaced wires. High-tensile wires may be difficult
to attach to end post assemblies. Soft-metal crimps
frequently are used in these situations (Vis. 35). Soft
wires or small-diameter, high-tensile wires may be
attached to end post assemblies with Lshaped cranks, which
utilize a wire fed through a hole drilled through the end
post (Vis. 29). The crank is made out of a 5/8-inch-
diameter and 15-inch-long metal rod. Several excellent in-
line tensioning devices are available and will work well
as long as they do not cause abrupt bending of the wire.

(Vis. 34) Low-carbon trellis wire that has been attached
to an end post by wrapping the wire around the post and
then making a series of gentle bends back on the wire
itself.

(Vis. 35) A high-carbon trellis wire that has been
attached to an end post by wrapping the wire around the
post and then attaching the wire to itself with a soft-
metal crimp.

Movable catch wires are used with some training systems.
They are typically installed on upward-slanting nails (or
downward-slanting nails in dip areas) on line posts. These
wires may be lightly tensioned and permanently attached at
the end posts. Some growers have used short (24-inch)
lengths of chain on the ends of these wires, which are
pulled tight and hooked over nails on the end posts to
retension wires after they have been moved.

Tools and Gadgets for Installing Trellis Wires

Basic hand tools for installing vineyard trellis wires
include fencing pliers for pulling misguided staples and
cutting lengths of wire, a standard claw hammer and a
ratcheting wire tightener (Vis. 36), which is preferable
to a chain grab wire puller. A wire gripper (Klein Tools,
Chicago, Ill., model #I 613-30F) can be added to the
ratchet tightener at one or both ends to hold even high-

tensile wire quite well (Vis. 36). A wire reel, which can
be purchased or fabricated in several designs, is
essential for unwinding rolls of wire. Crimps (Vis. 35)
and a crimping tool, a post maul (Vis. 26), a pinch bar
and a carpenter's apron to hold staples are also useful.

(Vis. 36). A ratcheting wire tightener. A wire gripper has
been welded on one end to reliably hold high-tensile wire.

Early-season Weed Control

A second-year vineyard should be inspected in early spring
for weed control in the vine rows. Before vine growth
begins, there is a window of opportunity to control any
weed growth around vines that has overwintered with green
leaf area. Quackgrass is a common overwintering weed
problem (Vis. 37). An application of the systemic
herbicide glyphosate can be made over vines before they
start to grow to control such weed problems. Because the
target for this herbicide is mature leaf area, an
application will be most effective if the weed leaf area
is allowed to green up in the spring. However, the
application must be made before vines start to grow.
Therefore, optimum timing for this application can be
determined by watching for the first sign of bud swell on
vines. A moderate rate of glyphosate in a low volume of
water (approximately 10 gallons per acre sprayed) often
will be effective. Check the product label for application
details.

(Vis. 37) This vineyard was overrun with quackgrass at the
start of its second growing season. Glyphosate herbicide
applied before bud break killed this weed infestation
except in the area to the left of the post, which was left
unsprayed.

Growers who miss this opportunity will be left to rely on
more difficult, more costly, less effective efforts to
control these weed problems during the growing season.

Replanting

It often will be necessary to replant a small percentage
of vines that either never grew or did not survive the
winter, as well as those with extremely weak growth. Plans
should be made to obtain the necessary vines. Replant as
early as the ground can be worked in the spring and before
applying preemergence herbicides.

Year 2 Vine Management

Year 2 vine management continues to focus on the
development of vine size. If vine growth in year 1 was
exceptionally good, then year 2 pruning may involve the
first steps in establishing the permanent vine training
system. Information on vine training systems is presented
in other publications (Zabadal, 1996a, and Zabadal,
1996b). However, most vines in their second year can be
pruned and trained in a standard manner that will permit
the grower to select any vine training system in year 3.
Retain one or two canes per vine with a maximum length
extending to about 4 inches below the top wire of the
trellis (Vis. 38). The goal in year 2 will be to
approximately triple the number of shoots that grew well
in year 1. A shoot will have grown well if it attained a
minimum length of approximately 30 inches. A quick
evaluation of the vineyard at the start of year 2 will
indicate the average condition of vines. For example, if
vines average four canes at least 30 inches long, then aim
for about 12 shoots to be grown in year 2. Double or even
multiple trunking of vines is often desirable in cool-
climate vineyards. If growth was good in year 1, it may be
possible to establish two trunks in year 2. If the vines
are selfrooted, the goal is to have trunks arise
independent of each other from the ground (Vis. 38)A. If
the vines are grafted, both trunks must originate just
above the graft union area (Vis. 38)B. It often will be
possible to obtain enough shoot growth from just one long
cane in year 2 so that other canes on grafted vines can be
pruned to one- or two-node spurs to create a reservoir of
growth near the graft union (Vis. 38)C.

(Vis. 38) (a) Two canes originating from the ground for
self-rooted vines at the start of year 2; (b) the
development of two canes from a single trunk when either
two independent trunks from self-rooted vines directly
from the ground are not available or when managing grafted
grapevines; (c) use of a single cane plus spurs on a
grafted vine.

If the winter was severe, the variety being grown is
relatively cold tender or both, check the nodes on vines
before pruning to determine the extent of bud mortality.
Compensate for bud mortality by pruning less severely.
When winter injury is extensive, delay pruning until after
shoot growth has begun.

Tying Grapevines

The second and third years of the vineyard are important
formative years for the structure of vines. If the trellis
is properly constructed and vines are properly pruned and
tied to the trellis, vines with straight trunks will
develop. The vineyard task of tying can proceed after
pruning and trellis maintenance on days when it is warm
enough to work with bare hands.

Because early shoot growth is weakly attached to canes,
tying should be completed before the start of vine growth.
Otherwise, it may be preferable to delay this task until
shoots have grown several inches and become less
susceptible to detachment. Vines that become detached from
the trellis during the growing season are very difficult
and costly to reattach. Therefore, vines need to be tied
well to the trellis to support heavy loads during the
growing season. However, if ties are made too tight or in
the wrong locations on the vine, girdling can destroy
portions of the vine.

Hemp twine and twist ties are the most economical and
widely used tying materials. Several types of plastic ties
and tools for applying plastic tape are a matter of
personal preference and may or may not be cost effective.
Whatever the approach, proper tying of vines is very
important in year 2 of the vineyard. The fundamental
techniques for tying grapevines are presented in the
Southwest Michigan Research and Extension Center Report
"Tying Grapevines" (Zabadal, 1997b).

Preemergence Weed Control

The same options available for controlling annual weed
growth in the newly planted vineyard are available for the
second-year vineyard. When vines are three years old or
older, other preemergence herbicides are registered for
vineyard use. If preemergence herbicides are used, make
applications as early as possible in the spring.

Fertilizing with Nitrogen

Most vineyards will exhibit a growth response to nitrogen
fertilization. Application of 30 to 60 pounds of actual N
is recommended in a second-year vineyard when shoots are 4
to 12 inches long. Band fertilizer along the vine rows or
apply by hand in a ring around each vine 2 feet in
diameter. Choose the specific type of nitrogen fertilizer
on the basis of cost per pound of actual nitrogen.
Ammonium nitrate is the most commonly used vineyard
nitrogen fertilizer.

Adjusting Shoot Number per Vine, Suckering and Defruiting

If it is necessary to reduce the number of shoots per
vine, perform this task when shoots are 6 to 10 inches
long. The location of shoots to be retained will depend on
the training system to be used. For example, if the chosen
training system were the Hudson River Umbrella (top-wire
cordon), retain shoots high on the trellis to develop a
source of canes with which to establish the cordons
(Vis. 39). Many training systems similarly utilize canes
high on the trellis, so shoots in that part of the trellis
often are retained in preference to those lower
(Vis. 38)B.

(Vis. 39) This 'Niagara' vine is at the end of its second
growing season. Shoots were saved on the upper portion of
the vine and allowed to cling along wires. Those shoots
matured into canes that were used to establish a cordon
along the top wire of the trellis.

Suckers are shoots that arise from the base of the vines
(sometimes also called water sprouts) or from the ground.
Some sucker shoots should be retained because they mature
into canes that may be used to renew trunks on the vine.
However, grapevines can develop as many as 60 suckers per
vine. Therefore, reduce suckers at the bases of new vines
to two to four per vine. This can be done when the number
of shoots is adjusted. Suckers can be loosely summer tied
to facilitate their upward growth on the trellis so they
are protected from equipment (Vis. 23).

Vines should be defruited in the second year, which is
most easily accomplished when shoots are about 10 to 15
inches long and the small, visible clusters can easily be
pinched off the vine.

Controlling Pests

The health of the vine must be maintained to promote its
growth in year 2. Preventive fungicide sprays and
insecticide sprays should be applied as needed to protect
leaf area as in year 1.

Managing the Canopy

Rapidly elongating shoot growth on young grapevines may be
highly susceptible to detachment, especially during high
winds. It is often useful to attach these shoots to the
trellis by a combination of light tying and tucking of
shoots. Begin this activity when the shoots are 20 to 24
inches long or about the time of grape bloom - i.e., when
shoots are long enough to be reoriented but tendrils have
not yet attached themselves to the trellis. Make ties
loose so they won't girdle expanding shoots and canes
(Vis. 23).

Managing Row Middles

Competition for water and nutrients from weed/sod growth
in the vineyard floor middles should be minimized,
especially in the first half of the growing season. Row
middle management options as previously discussed include
cultivation, mowing, mulching and herbicide spraying.
Begin in early to mid-August to slow vine growth by
ceasing mowing (Vis. 21) or planting a cover crop in row
middles that have been cultivated (Vis. 24).

VII. Year 3 Vine Management

Some aspects of vine management in year 3 of a vineyard
will be similar to that in year 2. Inspect the vineyard in
early spring to determine if overwintering weed growth
under the trellis warrants an early-season spray of
glyphosate or if there is still a need to replace a few
vines. Trellis construction, including end post anchoring,
should have been completed by the start of year 3.

Vines at this stage of the vineyard can vary from being as
small as those originally planted to being large enough to
fill the entire trellis. Pruning, fertilization and crop
adjustment of vines at this time should be based on the
size of the vine, which is conveniently determined by its
weight of cane prunings, not its age.

Training

Year 3 is often the time to initiate the permanent vine
training system. The choice of a vine training system is a
major decision in the life of the vineyard. Factors to
consider when choosing a vine training system (Zabadal,
1996a) and training system options for cook climate
vineyards (Zabadal, 1996b) are presented in other
publications.

Pruning

Vines should be managed in year 3 according to their size.
The actual size of individual vines is not apparent after
they have been pruned, so as a part of the pruning process
in the third year of the vineyard, growers need to
determine the average size of vines and employ a strategy
to identify vines that are considerably smaller than the
average.

To determine the average size of vines, identify sections
of the vineyard according to their apparent uniformity of
vine size. Prune and weigh the cane prunings of 10 vines
in each section.

Vines are considered small, medium, large or extra large
when they develop approximately 0.2 or less, 0.3, 0.4 or
greater than 0.4 pounds of cane prunings per foot of
trellis (per foot of canopy on three-dimensional
trellises). For example, vines on a 6-foot vine spacing
would be considered small, medium, large or extra large if
they developed approximately 1.2 or less, 1.8, 2.4 or more
than 2.4 pounds of cane prunings per vine, respectively.

The smaller the vine, the less it should be cropped.
However, it is not possible to apply such management if
differences in the sizes of vines are not identified in
some way during pruning. One strategy is merely to prune
small vines as severely as required to reduce the fruiting
potential of the vine. If the vine is not much larger than
it was when it was planted, prune it to three to four
nodes. If the vine matured only four canes that were 30
inches or more in length, prune it back like a second-year
vine - i.e., to a 12-node cane. That is the easiest
approach.

With such severe pruning, however, winter injury could
result in fewer shoots growing out than desired.
Regardless of winter injury, severe pruning will limit
leaf area development on vines that are already smaller
than average. Therefore, a second strategy for small vines
is to prune them with the same pruning severity as the
other vines in the vineyard but mark them with flagging
tape at the time of pruning. In its simplest application,
all marked vines are completely defruited to promote their
vegetative development. Two colors of tape may also be
used to indicate partial or complete defruiting. In this
way, small vines can be pruned to develop substantial leaf
area without adding crop stress.

Controlling Weeds

Preemergence herbicides that were not legally available
for the first 2 years of the vineyard may be registered
for use in year 3. Growers should seek counsel from
Extension and private consultants on options for
preemergence weed control in vineyards 3 years old and
older. Nevertheless, the strategy is the same as in
previous years - i.e., apply preemergence weed control